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TREATISE 



ON THE 



Designing anJ Construction 



OF 



Woven Fabrics 



BT 
HERMAN O. WERNER 

Head Master Textile Department Rhode Island School of Design 
Price Two Dollars and Fifty Cents 



\ 






[LIBRARY of CONGR^S 
Two Copies Heceiy^. 

APK 16 1908 

jopyrnffii envy 

J ^ If li^oG 

OLASST/A XXC, Nu 

i COPY b; 

fc—- ..,. ■Ill 



Copyright 1906 by Herman 0. Weme^ 



1 J 



\J 



ERRATA 

BOOK ONE 

Page 6, first line should read : Figure 4 shows four repeats 
and also in the first line of the fifth paragraph it should read four 
repeats. 

Page 17, first word in the last line of the third paragraph 
should be weave. 

Page 21, first line should read made from pointed twills, figured 
plains, etc. 

Page 22, first paragraph, second line should have a comma 
after double. 

Page 32, figure 61 should have the first end and first pick in 
the place where the last end and last pick now is. 

BOOK TWO 

Page 13, the illustrated example at the bottom of the page 
60] 45=1.333 and the sum of quotients is 7.458. The figures at 
the end of the last line on the page should be J/'^.045's. 



CONTENTS 



BOOK I. 
Chapter One. 



sTo. Page. 
The Composition of Textile Fabrics, Point Paper, The Founda- 
tion Weaves 3 — 9 

1. Ends and picks 3 

2. Textile designing paper 3 

3. The foundation weaves 4 

4. The plain weave 4 

5. The twill weaves 5 

6. Regular satin weaves ......-,; 7 

Chapter Two. • 

Fancy Effects in Plain We^ave Fabrics and Those Derived 
from the Plain Weave . '. 10 — 17 

7. Plain weave fabrics figured by means of coarse and fine yarn . . 10 

8. Plain weave fabrics figured by means of two or more colors in 
warp and filling •, . . ._.,.„,1,, ..';.,, .._..,' 10 

Rib weaves ..." 12 

Figured rib weaves 14 

Oblique rib weaves 15 

Basket weaves 16 

Figured plain weaves 17 

Chapter Three. 

Fancy Effects tn Twill Weaves, Drafting, and Weaves 

Derived from the Regular Twills 18 — 41 

Figured effects produced by ineans of two or more colors in 

warp and filling 18 

Drafting 19 

Broken twills 24 

Figured broken twills 26 

Skip twills 26 

Fancy skip t\A'ills 28 

Diagonal twills 28 

Reclining twills 31 

Curved twills 33 

Pointed twills 33 

Figured pointed twills 34 

Double twill effects 34 

Fancy twill effects 35 

Entwining twills 36 

Fancy twills produced on the entwining twill principle 37 

Corkscrew weaves 38 

Figured corkscrew weaves 40 

Chapter Four. 

Weaves Derived from the Satin Weaves 42 — ^46 

Double satins 42 

Granite weaves 43 

Clear breaks in satin weaves 44 

Shaded satins 45 



No! Page. 

Chapter Five. 

Weaves for Fabrics Constructed ivith two Warps and one FiUing47 — 51 

35. An extra warp for weight 47 

36. An extra warp for figure 49 

37. Lappet and swivel weaving 50 

Chapter Six. 

Weaves for Fabrics Constructed ivith One Warp and Tivo 

Fillings 52 — 58 

38. An extra filling for weight 52 

39. An extra filling for figure 53 

40. Coin spots 54 

41. Rib fabrics produced b)^ means of two fillings and one warp . . 54 

42. Figured beavers 57 

Chapter Seven. 

Double Cloths 59 — 75 

43. The principle and construction of double cloths 59 

44. Double plain weaves 63 

45. Tricot weaves 66 

46. Combination of single and double plains 67 

47. Matelasse weaves 67 

48. Pique weaves 69 

49. Marseilles weaves 70 

50. Crepons 70 

51. Weaves for beavers, kersevs and ineltons 72 

52. Chinchillas ' 73 

Chapter Eight. 

Single and Double Cloth Weaves for Fabrics of a Special 

Construction 76 — 88 

53. Thrbugh-and-through weaves 76 

54. Bracket weaves 77 

55. Weaves for towelings 78 

56. Imitation gauze 79 

57. Honeycomb weaves 80 

58. Gauze 80 

Chapter Nine, 

Triple and More Ply Cloths 89—92 

59. Triple cloths 89 

60. Figured triple cloths 92 

Chapter Ten. 

Pile Fabrics 93—99 

61. Corduroys 93 

62. Velveteens 94 

63. Chenille 94 

64. Warp pile fabrics 95 



CHAPTER ONE. 

THE COMPOSITION OF TEXTILE FABRICS, POINT 
PAPER, THE FOUNDATION WEAVES. 

1. Ends and Picks. Textile Fabrics are composed of two 
distinct systems of threads, known as " Warp Threads " and 
" Filling Threads." The ivarp threads always run lengthwise in 
the fabric, while the filling threads run crosswise. 

In this book, the warp threads will be called Ends and the 
filling threads Picks. When the term threads is used it includes 
both ends and picks. The warp is also sometimes called Woof^ 
and the filling Weft, but these terms will not be used in this book. 

The warp and filling are interlaced with each other at right 
angles. The interlacing is done by raising a number of ends^ 
allowing the other ends to remain down in a 
fixed order, and by passing the filling through 
the opening thus obtained. This opening is 
termed a shed. In Fig. 1 the interlacing of 
the warp and filling is illustrated. The two 
systems of threads can be distinguished very 
readily. The threads marked A, or the lon- 
gitudinal threads (those running lengthwise), 
and which are usually shown on the paper in 
a vertical position, are the ends, and the threads Figure i 

in the horizontal position, B, are the picks. From this figure it 
can also be seen that the ends are at times raised and lowered 
over and under the picks. 

The raising and lowering of the ends is planned on point, or 
squared designing paper, — the lines on this paper running 
vertically and horizontally. The spaces between the vertical lines 
indicate the ends and the spaces between the horizontal lines indi- 
cate the picks. 

2. Textile Designing Paper. Point, or squared designing 
paper, as used for textile design, is ruled with both fine and 
heavy lines; the fine lines form small squares, or rectangles, 
which are generally termed blocks, and the heavy lines form 
squares, which are always termed squares. Every square, as 
formed by the heavy lines, encloses a number of the small blocks. 
Point paper is designated according to the number of blocks 
enclosed by every one of the squares. 

3 




DESIGXIXG AND COXSTRUCTIOX 

The designing paper mostly in use is laid off in squares con- 
taining 8x8, or 64 blocks. The sizes of the blocks and squares 
vary according to the different sizes preferred by each designer 
and according to the kind of fabrics to be designed. The point 
paper, designated by 8 x 8, is usually made with squares of lo" , 
V in size, and larger. If a design is to be made which requires 
a large number of threads the designing paper with the smaller 
squares is to be preferred; if, on the other hand, designs are to be 
made which require but a small number of threads, the paper 
with the larger squares is preferable. The number of blocks to 
the square warpwise is always indicated first. 

Other designing papers used are 8x6, 8x7, 8x9, 8x10, 
8 X 12, 8 X 16, 4 X 12, 6 x 12, 10 x 10, 12 x 12, 24 x 12, etc., etc. 

The heavy lines, or squares, serve as a unit for measure- 
ment, as well as in helping to count off the required number of 
blocks. In this way they help to find the size of any design on 
point paper, at a glance. 

For ordinary designing, i. e., when designing for harness 
looms, point paper is generally used which has the same number 
of blocks each w^ay; such as 8 x 8, 10 x 10 and 12 x 12. 

The point paper, for figured designs, is selected according 
to the texture of the fabric for which the design is to be made. 
For instance, if a fabric is to be woven which is to have 80 ends 
and 100 picks, an 8 x 10 point paper must be used, as the pro- 
portion of warp and filling is as 8 to 10. 

3. The Foundation Weaves. All weaves may be divided 
into three main classes: These three classes of weaves are 
termed the Foundation Weaves. The three foundation weaves 
are: 

I. The Plain Weave. 
II. The Twill Weaves. 
III. The Satin Weaves. 
All weaves are derived from some one of these three classes, and, 
in order to become a successful designer, it is necessary to 
understand these three weaves thoroughly. The first of these is : 

4. The Plain Weave. There is only one plain weave, which 
is illustrated by Fig. 1 ; from this figure it can be seen that every 
other thread weaves, or interlaces, in the same manner. The 
first end (the one farthest to the left) is raised over the first 
pick, then lowered under the second pick, raised over the third 
pick, then lowered under the fourth pick, etc., etc. The second 
end from the left is lowered under the first pick, raised over the 
second pick, lowered under the third pick, and raised over the 
fourth pick, etc., etc. The third end interlaces in the same 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 




manner as the first end, and the fourth end interlaces in the 
same manner as the second end, etc. From this it can be seen 
that two threads are repeated over the whole plan. These two 
threads, or two ends and two picks, constitute what is termed 
the Repeat of the weave. In other words, one repeat of any 
weave indicates the nufnber of ends and picks necessary to complete 
the weave. 

The interlacing of the warp and filling, the weave, is usually 
planned out on point, or squared designing paper. When 
planning out a weave it is customary to indicate the raising and 
lowering of the ends. Where an end is to be raised over a pick, 
the block, at which the end is crossed by the pick over which 
it is to be raised, is painted; this painted block is then known 
as a Raiser. Where an end is to be lowered 
under a pick, the block, at which the end is 
crossed by the pick under which it is to be low- 
ered, is allowed to remain blank, or white; this A — 
blank block is then known as a Sinker. Fig. 2 
illustrates the plain weave with four repeats in 
each direction; the painted, or solid, blocks in- 
dicate raisers and the blank blocks indicate Figure 2 
sinkers. In Fig. 2 it can readily be seen that every alternate 
end and pick interlaces in the same manner. The lines marked 
A indicate one repeat. 

When planning a weave on point paper, we usually start at 
the lower left-hand corner of the space reserved for the weave. 

Fig. 3 is the section-cut of a fabric woven with the plain 
I ^_^ weave, showing six warp threads 

I SS^^/iS^^^s/^Ss<^^s^^ in black. The filling is represented 

by a light pick (1), and by a shaded 
pick (2). 

The plain weave is the most 
closely inter' aced of all weaves. This makes the fabric strong 
and durable. Small perforations are formed, due to the mani- 
fold interlacing of each thread; a very high texture cannot be 
used in connection with the plain weave. 

The plain weave is employed in all kinds of fabrics. In 
cotton goods it is better known as the Cotton Weave and in silks 
it is known as the Taffeta Weave. 



Figure 3 



5. The Twill Weaves. The second class of the foundation 
weaves, the twill weaves, can be made in many varieties. Any 
number of ends and picks may be used in one repeat of a twill 
weave; the smallest twill that can be woven repeats on three 
ends and three picks, but any number of ends and picks may be 
used for one repeat, from three upwards. 



DESIGXIXG AXD CONSTRUCTION 



Fig. 



A— 




4 shows five repeats each way of the ^-^ twill. 
The lines marked A indicate the size of one 
repeat. From Fig. 4 it can be seen that diagonal 
lines are formed in fabrics woven with twill 
weaves, caused by the manner in which they 
interlace. 

In the case of the plain weave, every 
alternate end interlaces in the same manner, 
but in twill weaves we find that eveiy succes- 
sive end interlaces one pick higher than the pre- 



A~ 



A- 



A 

Figure 4 

ceding one. 

Twill weaves, in turn, may be divided into three classes: 

(1) twills that are made up 
of more sinkers than raisers, 
which are termed Filling- 
Effects, as shown in Fig. 4; 

(2) twills that are made up 
of more raisers than sinkers, 
which are termed Warp- 
Effects, as shown in Fig. 5, 
and (3) twills that are made 

up of as many raisers as sinkers, which are termed Even-sided 
Twills, and are shown in Fig. 6. 

Filling-effects are so called because fabrics woven with such 
a twill have more filling than warp on the top, or face. Warp- 
effects are so called because fabrics woven with such a twill 
have more warp than filling on the top, or face. An even-sided 
twill is so called because fabrics woven with such a twill have 
as much warp as filling on the top, or face. 

Fig. 5 illustrates the ^x twill, carried out for ^yq repeats. 








Figure 7 






Figvire 8 



Figure 9 



Figure 10 



Fig. 6 illustrates the ^^ twiU, carried out for three repeats. 
This is also known as the cassimere twill. It is used in all kinds 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

of fabrics, probably the best known being "cassimere suiting," 
from which it receives its name. 

TwiU weaves are usually indicated according to the inter- 
lacing of the first end; sometimes according to the interlacing of 
the first pick. The first method is used in this book. 

Twill weaves enter into almost all classes of woven fabrics, 
and their variety is practically unlimited; Figs. 7, 8, 9 and 10 
illustrate a few more patterns. Fig. 7 shows the regular twill 
known as the ^-j~- twill. Fig. 8 shows the warp-effect of the 
twill illustrated by Fig. 7, and is known as the ^t-t twill; both 
of these twills can be woven with five harness-frames. Fig. 9 
iUustrates a 16-harness twill, known as the -^-t-t-t-t-'-? twill; 
Fig. 10 shows another 16-harness twill, known as the -3-^-3 
twill. 

6. Regular Satin Weaves. Satin weaves are bare of the 
characteristic degree lines, which we find in twill weaves, but 
have, instead, a smooth-appearing surface. The interlacing 
of the ends and picks is done in a different rotation from that in 
twill weaves, where every successive end interlaces one pick 
higher than the preceding one. This is never the case in regular 
satin weaves. 

In satin weaves the points of interlacing are scattered as 
much as. possible, but they are still arranged in regular order. 
The farther apart the points of interlacing are, the less they 
will be noticeable on the face of the fabric, giving it a fine and 
smooth appearance. 

The smallest regular satin that can be woven is one repeating 
on five ends and five picks. This satin is technically known 
as the five-harness, or "five-leaf," satin. 

Satin weaves are usually indicated by the number of ends 
and picks they repeat on, or by the number of harness frames 
required to weave them (which is the same, as every end in one 
repeat of a satin weave requires one harness frame) : thus we 
speak of a seven-end, or seven-harness, satin, etc. 

Every end interlaces but once, i. e., with one pick, in one 
repeat of any regular satin weave, and every pick interlaces but 
once, i. e., with one end in one repeat of any regular satin weave. 

To find the points of interlacing for any regular satin, the 
number indicating the satin (or indicating the number of ends 
and picks the satin repeats on, or the number of harness frames 
required to weave the satin in question), is divided into two 
unequal parts which have not a common divisor, nor should one 
of the parts be the unit 1; either one of these parts is termed 
and may be used as the Counter. 

Rule: To find the points of interlacing for any regular 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

satin weave, add the counter to the numeral one (1), then add 
the counter to this sum. Keep on adding the counter to the 
sums until a sum exceeds the number which indicates the satin 
weave in question; from this last sum subtract the number 
indicating the satin, and add the counter to the difference, then 
add the counter to the sum, etc., etc. Keep on adding the 
counter to the sums (which do not exceed the number indicating 
the satin), and differences, until the difference of one (1) is 
obtained. The sums, not exceeding the number indicating 
the satin weave in question, and the differences [excepting the 
last one (1)], are the points of interlacing. 

For an illustration of the above rule the finding of the 
points of interlacing for a five-harness satin is given by the 
following: The number 5 can be divided into two unequal 
parts as 2 and 3. Either the 2 or the 3 may now be taken for 
the counter. Taking the number 2 and adding it to the numeral 
1, and to the different sums and differences obtained through the 
following of the rule, gives j_+2=3+2=5+2=7— 5=2+2== 
4-|-2=6 — 5=1. Underlining the sums [considering the nu- 
meral one (1) as the first sum] not exceeding the number 
indicating the satin weave (in this case 5) and the differences, 
and then writing these points of interlacing separately and 

1, 2, 3, 4 5. 

numbering them in rotation there is 1, 3, 5, 2 and 4. Now con- 
sidering the large numbers, or the pqints of interlacing, as the 
ends and the small numbers as the picks we find : 

That the first end interlaces with the first pick. 

That the third end interlaces with the second pick. 

That the fifth end interlaces with the third pick. 

That the second end interlaces with the fourth pick. 

And that the fourth end interlaces with the fifth pick. 

Fig. 11 represents a five-harness satin, two as the counter, 



A — 




A — 




Figure 11 



Figure 12 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

filling-effect, carried out for four repeats each way. The pro- 
jecting lines A indicate the size of one repeat. Fig. 12 is the 
warp-effect of the same satin. 

Satin weaves are used for sateens, linings, and other high- 
textured fabrics; they are also largely employed as stitching in 
double cloths, etc., and as ground weaves for all kinds of fancy 
fabrics woven on the Jacquard loom. The best known of these 
fabrics is probably the Linen Damask used for table covers, etc. 
For this purpose satin weaves are used, which repeat on as many 
as 21, and sometimes 36, ends and picks. 



CHAPTER TWO. 

FANCY EFFECTS IN PLAIN WEAVE FABRICS AND 
THOSE DERIVED FROM THE PLAIN WEAVE. 

7. Plain Weave Fabrics Figured by Means of Coarse 
(heavy) and Fine Yarn. This method of figuring fabrics which 
are to be woven with the plain weave, is largely carried on in 
producing fancy borders and edges as they are found in Cambric 
Handkerchiefs. 

In cotton goods, used for shirtings and shirt waistings, 
over-checks are produced by means of heavy threads in warp 
and filling, or by having two or more threads side by side 
weaving together taking up the space of but one thread. In 
this same manner so-called corded effects are produced in silk 
goods, etc. 

8. Plain Weave Fabrics Figured by means of Two or More 
Colors in Warp and Filling. This idea is largely carried out in 
cottons, woolens, worsteds, and silk goods destined for ladies' 
dress goods. It is also employed in men's woolen and worsted 
wear. 

By having two or more colors in the warp and one color in 
the filling, broken stripes w411 be produced running lengthwise 
in the goods. If colored picks, corresponding to the color 
arrangement in the warp, are introduced into a warp which has 
a fancy color arrangement, solid colored stripes and checks 
will be the result, depending upon the arrangement of the 
colors in the warp and filling. 

When planning a color effect on paper, it is customary to 
reserve a large enough space for the 
Color Arrangement effect, indicating the color arrangement 
of Warp. Qf -(-]^g warp above this space, and the 

color arrangement of the filling on the 

left-hand side, placing the weave in the 
upper left-hand corner. See Fig. 13. 

After having indicated the color 
arrangement of the warp and filling, 
the plain weave should be dotted (with 
pencil) in the space reserved for the 
color effect, always starting by raising 
Figure 13 the first end over the first pick. The 

10 



Weave. 






OF WOVEN FABRICS 



effect may then be painted. This is done by painting all the 
ends (with their respective color) wherever they are raised over 
the picks, and by painting all the picks (with their respective 
color) wherever they pass over the ends; i. e., warp shows at 
raisers and filling shows at sinkers. 





Figure 14 Figure 15 

Fig. 14 illustrates the color effect obtained by having the 
warp and filling colors arranged, one of black, one of white. 
The effect is carried out for 8 repeats. This is known as the 
Tricot Effect, having stripes of solid color running across the 
fabric. 

Fig. 15 illustrates the color effect obtained by having the 
warp colors arranged one of black, one of white. The filling 
colors are arranged one of white, one of black. The effect is 
carried out for 8 repeats. This is known as the Hair-Line Effect, 
having stripes of solid color running lengthwise in the fabric. 

A combination of checks of hair-line and tricot effects may 
be obtained by having the warp and filling colors arranged one 
of black to alternate with one of white for a total of from 4 to 
16 threads or more, then reversing 
the order arranging the colors one of 
white to alternate with one of black 
for a total of from 4 to 16 threads or 
more. The size of the checks depends 
upon the total number of threads for 
which each color arrangement is re- 
peated before the arrangement of 
colors is reversed. In this way 
many different effects may be 
obtained. 

Fig. 16 illustrates the effect 
obtained by having the warp and 
filling colors arranged two of black, two of white. It is carried 
for four repeats, and is somewhat of a Star Effect. 

11 






Jrt-* 



■^^ 



Figure 16 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 



9. Rib Weaves. Rib weaves are derived from the Plain, 
or cotton weave, and are divided into two classes. 

A. Warp-Rib Weaves. 

B. Filling- Rib Weaves. 

A. As seen in Chapter 1, Section 4, in the plain weave every 
other end interlaces in the same manner, i. e., when one end is 
raised, the next but one is also raised, etc. This is also the 
case with Warp- Rib Weaves. Warp-rib weaves differ from the 
plain weaves by having the ends raised for more than one pick 
(at least once in one repeat of the weave) causing two or more 
picks to enter the same shed. This causes cords or Rib Lines to 
form running in the direction of the filling. The larger these 
rib lines are to be, the more picks must enter the same shed, or 
the coarser must be the material required for the filling. Both 
the face and back of fabrics, which have been woven with the 
warp-rib weave, are made up of the warp, the interweaving 
filling being invisible. From this fact we derive the name, 
Warp-Rib Weaves. 

In order to have more than one pick enter the same shed, 
extra raisers and sinkers must be added on top of those of the 
plain weave. In this way, one end is raised for more than 
one pick in succession, and the ends, on either side of the raised 
end, remain down for more than one pick. In regular warp- 
rib weaves all ends are raised and lowered alternately, every 
lowered end remaining down as long as the raised ends are up, 
i. e., the ends lowered remain down for as many picks as the raised 
ends remain up. 

Having the face and back of fabrics, woven with warp-rib 
weaves, made up of warp and entirely covering the filling, calls for 
a large number of ends per inch, i. e., a high texture is required. 
Warp-rib weaves are indicated by naming the number of 
picks which enter each shed. For instance, a 2 and 2 warp-rib 
weave has two picks enter each shed that is formed, two sheds 
completing the weave. A 2 and 2 warp-rib weave repeats on 
2 ends and 4 picks. A 2 and 3 warp-rib weave indicates that 2 

picks are to enter the first 

and 3 picks the second 

shed; this warp-rib weave 

also repeats on 2 sheds. 

The entire weave repeats 

on 2 ends and 5 picks. 

All regular warp-rib 

weaves repeat on 2 ends 
^^^'^ 1^ and at least 3 picks. ^'^' ^^ 

Fig. 17 illustrates a 2 and 2 warp-rib weave, — 8 repeats 
wide and 4 repeats high. 

12 



ViViV.'.'. 
V.V.V.'.'. 






OF WOVEN FABRICS 

Fig. 18 illustrates a 2, 2, and 4 warp-rib weave, 8 repeats 
wide and 1 repeat high. This weave repeats on 6 sheds or ribs. 
Two picks enter the first shed, two picks enter the second, four 
picks enter the third, two picks enter the fourth, two picks enter 
the fifth and four picks enter the sixth. Thus 6 sheds are necessary 
to complete this weave, because every other one (according to 
the plain weave) is formed alike; the odd numbered sheds are 
formed by the raising of the odd numbered ends, while the even 
numbered ones are formed by the raising of the even numbered 
ends. Now if the weave is started over again after the third 
shed, the next one, or first shed, would be the same as the third, 
both being numbered odd; this would cause all the picks from 
the third shed and all the picks from the first to be thrown 
together. 



B. The face and back of fabrics woven with Filling-Rib 
Weaves are made up of the filling, the warp, lying in between 
the filling, being invisible. In this case two or more ends (at 
least once in one repeat) which lie side by side interlace in the 
same manner; this causes cords, or Rib Lines, to form, running 
in the direction of the warp. The larger the rib-lines are to be, 
the more ends, lying side by side, must weave together, or the 
coarser must be the material required for the warp. 

In order to have two or more ends, lying side by side, 
interlace in the same manner, extra raisers and sinkers must 
be added on the side of those of the plain weave. 

Filling-rib weaves are indicated by the number of ends, 
side by side, interlacing in the same manner. For instance, a 
2 and 2 filling-rib weave has all the ends working in pairs; that 
is, the first two ends are raised while the next two ends are 
lowered, etc., according to the plain weave. All regular filling- 
rib weaves repeat on at least 
3 ends and 2 picks. 

Fig. 19 shows a 2 and 2 
filling-rib weave, 4 repeats 
wide and 8 repeats high. 

Fig. 20 is a 2, 2 and 4 
filling-rib weave, 1 repeat wide 
and 8 repeats high. In this, 
the first two ends weave to- 
Figure 19 gether forming the first rib; ^^eure 20 

the next two ends weave together forming the second rib; 
and the next four ends weave together forming the third rib, 
etc., etc. This, like the corresponding weave of the warp-rib 
type, requires six ribs to be complete. 




13 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

10. Figured-Rib Weaves. The simplest way of figuring 
rib weaves is to cause breaks in the rib Hues. This is done by 
laying out a regular rib weave, for the distance the rib line is 
to continue without a break, and then start the next end in 
such a manner that the highest raiser, of a series of raisers. 





Figure 21 



Figure 22 



comes in the centre of a series of sinkers of the preceding end. 
Continue the rib weave in accordance with this last end until 
another break is required. 

Fig. 21 illustrates this principle as applied to a warp-rib 
weave. It is made from the regular 4 and 4 warp-rib weave. 
A break in the rib line occurs after every sixth end. ^ ; 

Fig. 22 illustrates the same principle, carried out withja 
filling-rib weave. It is made from the regular 4 and 4 filling- 
rib weave. A break in the rib line occurs after every sixth pick. 

Another method of figuring these weaves is to combine warp 
and filling-rib weaves. This is done by 
laying out a ground of either warp or 
: filling-rib weave and figuring this ground 
with the opposite rib weave. The sim- 
plest form of tliese figured-rib weaves is 
shown in Fig. 23. It is composed of blocks 
of warp-rib weave alternating with 
blocks of filling-rib weave, a 2 and 2 . 
warp and filling-rib weave being used. ■ 

This class of figured-rib weaves is 
usually figured according to some Motive, / 
or pre-arranged plan. 

A " motive " is a pre-arranged plan or design according to 
which a weave may be carried out. The motive, like the weave 
(in Weave Formation), is laid out on point paper, every block 
in the motive representing a certain number of blocks in the 



m 



Figure 23 



14 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 



1 8 rB,B : a 8 a SB 



aasiiasaaiass. 






aVa'a'a'a'n a a a a a a...—. 



:kw--khs^^ 



a a a I a a a 8 a ■"«■■" as 



ViWAV ■.■.«.-:=-.•. W 



weave. In motive 
Fig. 23 A, every 
block represents 
eight ends and 
eight picks, caus- 
ing the weave to 
repeat on sixteen 
ends and sixteen 
picks. Fig. 24 
shows another of 
these figured-rib 
weaves carried out 
according to 
motive A; every 
block in the motive 
represents nine 
ends and nine 
picks. A 1 and 2 



Figure 24 

warp-rib weave is used for the ground and a 3 and 3 filling-rib 
weave is used for the figure. 



11. Oblique Rib Weaves. Oblique rib weaves represent 
another form of combination warp and filling rib weaves arranged 
in an entirely different manner from the figured rib weaves 
described above. 

They are constructed in the following manner. First deter- 
mine on the point paper the size of one 
repeat of the weave which is to be laid out. 
Next divide this space into eight equal sec- 
tions (see diagram, Fig. 25), by drawing 
one line horizontally and one line per- 
pendicularly through the centre of the 
space, and then by drawing lines diagonally 
(one from left to right and the other from 
right to left), through the centre. Then 
number these sections, beginning at the 
lower left-hand corner, up and around until all the sections 
have been numbered. 

There are two methods in which the oblique rib weaves 
may be constructed. First method: Fill out every odd num- 
bered section with a filling-rib weave and every even numbered 
section with a warp-rib weave. (See Fig. 26.) 

Second method: Select two connecting sections, such as 1 
and 2, and fill them out with filling-rib weave; then take sections 
3 and 4 and fill them out with warp-rib weave; next take sec- 
tions 5 and 6 and fill them out with filling-rib weave; sections 

15 




Figure 25 



DESIGXIXG AND CONSTRUCTION 
7 and 8 are then filled out with warp-rib weave. (See Fig. 27.) 






Figure 26 



^"U= 



Figure 27 



Oblique rib weaves are used in a line of fabrics known as 
*' Basket Cloth "; in worsted-suitings, dress goods, cloakings, etc. 

12. Basket Weaves. " Basket," like rib weaves, are de- 
rived from the plain weave, and in cloth have the appearance of 
a combination of warp and filling blocks, which are either square 
or oblong in shape. Basket weaves on paper have the ap- 
pearance of a combination of blocks of raisers and sinkers. In 
other words, basket weaves have the appearance of an enlarged 
plain weave. 

Basket weaves are constructed by making two or more 
ends, which lie side by side, interlace in the same manner and 
by causing two or more picks to enter the s.ame shed. 

Basket weaves are indicated by the number of ends working 
together and by the number of picks entering the same shed. 
For instance, a 2 and 2 basket weave calls for the first two ends 
to interlace in the same manner ; that is, work together, and 
for the first two picks to enter the same shed; the next two ends 
to work together, and the next two picks to enter the same 
shed. Fig. 28 illustrates this weave. 

1 , and 3 basket weave calls for the first end and the 
first pick to work alone; the second 
and third ends to work together 
and the second and third picks to 
enter the same shed; the fourth 
end to work alone and the fourth 
pick to enter one shed alone; the 
fifth, sixth and seventh ends to 
work together and the fifth, sixth 
and seventh picks to enter the 
(See Fig. 29.) 

When laying out these weaves it must be remembered that 
they are derived from the plain weave, and require every other 
set of ends to interlace in the same manner and every other shed 
to be the same, i. e., raising the same ends for every other shed. 

16 



A 1, 2, 




Figure 29 




same 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

13. Figured Plain Weaves. Figured effects can be pro- 
duced by forming spots of warp or filling floats on a plain weave 
ground. When laying out these weaves on point paper it is 
customary first to determine the size of one repeat of the com- 
plete design (weave); then determine the size and number of 
figure spots to be distributed over one repeat, after which mark 
off the blocks, where the spots are to fall on the point paper, 
and fill in the plain weave where no spots are to be. 

The spots are usually arranged according to some motive, 
and the shape of the spots is often of some special design. In 



it 



W-X-m^-iK 






rrp-VAV. 



w-^X-; 



^'7::;-:-:-Xs 



Figure 30 



A. 



Figure 31 



Fig. 30 we have a figured plain weave which has spots ol filling 
floats extending over six ends and five picks; the spots are ar- 
ranged according to a plain-weave motive. The entire weave 
repeats on 20 ends and 20 picks 

When laying out these weaves, special care must be taken 
so that the figure spots will run evenly over the whole design or 
wave in the rotation for which the motive calls. 

Fig. 31 is another figured plain weave with a somewhat 
fancier character than Fig. 30. This weave repeats on 24 ends 
and 24 picks. The spots are arranged according to motive Fig. 
31, A. 

Figured plain weaves are employed in many kinds of woven 
fabrics, but are mostly used in a variety of white cotton goods 
technically known as " Plain Fancies." They are also largely 
used in a class of fabrics made of a fine w^orsted warp and silk 
filling, etc., etc. 



17 



CHAPTER III. 

FANCY EFFECTS IN TWILL WEAVES, DRAFTING, AND 
WEAVES DERIVED FROM THE REGULAR TWILLS 

14. Figured Effects Produced by Means of Two or More 
Colors in Warp and Filling. These effects are carried out 
similarly to those in plain-weave fabrics, the only difference 
being in the weave. A twill weave is substituted in place of the 
plain weave, and the color effect carried out according to the twill 
weave used. 

Fig. 32 illustrates the color effect obtained in a fabric woven 




-i;,iJ.iH 


il 



Figure 32 



Figure 33 



with the ^2 twill, the warp and filling colors arranged two of 
black and two of white. This is the best tricot effect obtainable 
with a '^^ twill. 

Fig. 33 illustrates the best hairline effect obtainable with a 
^^ twill. The warp colors are ar- 
ranged two of black and two of white 
and the filling colors are arranged two 
of white and two of black. 

Fig. 34 illustrates the effect 
technically known as " shepherd's 
plaid;" it is made by having 
warp and filling colors arranged 
four of black and four of white, 
using the ^^ twill. 

When laying out these effects 
care should be taken to start the 
twill weave used in the right way; 
/. e., a I3 twill should be started 




Figure 34 



18 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

with one up, and a ^^ twill should be started with three 
down, etc. 

15. Drafting. Two kinds of drafts are distinguished in 
relation to textile design: 

(A) Drawing-in Drafts. 

(B) Chain Drafts. 

(A) A drawing-in draft is a plan by which the ends are 
drawn through the eyes, or openings, in the heddles which are 
adjusted to the different harness-frames. 

There are two distinct methods of making drawing-in 
drafts, (a) from front to rear, (b) from rear to front. 

(a) This plan is generally used in this country and consists 
in starting the drawing-in of a warp by drawing the first end on 
the first harness; i. e., the harness nearest to the loom reed, the 
second end on the harness behind the first, etc., etc. 

(b) This method consists in drawing the first end of a 
warp on the harness nearest to the warp beam, the second end 
on the harness in front of this, etc., etc. 

Note. These methods are given with the understanding that 
the breast-beam is in the front of the loom. 

A drawing-in draft may be prepared on the regular point 
paper, or it may be prepared on paper which is ruled horizon- 
tally. When preparing a drawing-in draft on point paper, the 
spaces between the perpendicular lines indicate the ends, and the 
spaces between the horizontal lines indicate the harness-frames. 

When preparing a drawing-in draft on horizontally ruled 
paper, the horizontal lines indicate the harness-frames, and the 
ends must be indicated by lines drawn perpendicularly. The 
horizontal lines on which these perpendicular lines terminate, 
indicate the harness-frame on which the ends represented by 
the perpendicular lines are to be drawn. 

Another method, often used, of preparing drawing-in drafts 
is to put down the numbers of the harness-frames on which 
the different ends are to be drawn. For instance, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
6, 7, 8, 6, 5, 4, 3, indicates that the ends are drawn in rotation 
on the first eight harness-frames; then reversing they start with 
the sixth harness and return to the third. 

When laying out a drawing-in draft on point paper, the 
harness-frames on which the different ends are to be drawn, 
are indicated by filling in the block at which the end and the 
harness-frame (on which the end is to be drawn) intersect. 

Fig. 35 illustrates a drawing-in draft carried out on point 
paper. The numbers on the left indi- 
cate the harness-frames. It is not always 
necessary to number them. P'acing the 
Figure 35 word front Sit the proper place on the draft 

19 



J L±in~ l_J iH I in i r ' 

^ Lpi LitTT Pn ^ .r 
7 ■j.TlrrfTrTTiTTr 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 



is quite sufficient in many instances, especially when a low 
number of harness-frames are being used. 

Drawing-in drafts are generally governed by the weaves 
for which they are used, and may be divided into " Straight " 
and " Fancy " drawing-in drafts 

In a straight drawing-in draft, the ends are drawn in rota- 
tion in the heddles on the different harness-frames, i. e., the 
first end is drawn in the first heddle of the first harness, the 
second end is drawn in the first heddle of the second harness, 
the third end is drawn in the first heddle of the third harness, 
the fourth end is drawn in the first heddle of the fourth harness, 
the fifth end is drawn in the second heddle of the first harness, 
the sixth end is drawn in the second heddle of the second harness, 
and so on, until every end in the warp has been drawn in. This 
is a straight draw for four harness-frames. If more than four 
harness-frames are to be used, the ends must be drawn in from 
the first to the last in rotation, after which it is necessary to 
commence again with the first harness. 

So-called " Fancy Drawing-in Drafts " are generally used to 
reduce the number of harness-frames; as some weaves, which 
repeat on a high number of ends (several of the ends interlacing 
in the same manner), would require too many harness-frames 
if they should be drawn in straight. 

Among fancy drawing-in drafts are distinguished " Broken 
draws," " Point draws," " Skip draws," " Sectional draws," 
" Double draws," etc. 

Broken draws, as the name indicates, are those which are 
more or less broken up. They are generally used for weaves 
which have a broken -up effect; as, broken twills, combination 
weaves, etc., and are obtained by reducing a weave to its lowest 
number of harness-frames. These drafts find extensive use in 
the manufacture of worsted and woolen suiting and of woolen 
and cotton goods of a 
fancy nature. 

Figs. 36 and 37 
illustrate two broken 
draws of different 
characters. Fig. 36 Front 

is made for a broken ^^^"^^ ^^ 

twill with long twill lines 
in both directions and Fig. 
37 illustrates a draw ob- 
tained by reducing a fancy 
weave to its lowest number 
of harness-frames. 

Point draws are usu- 





OF WOVEN FABRICS 

ally made from pointed, twill, figrnxd plains, etc., and, as the 
name indicates, they run to a point. 

Fig. 38 illustrates one of the point draws of a somewhat 
fancy nature The ends are drawn from the first to the eighth 




harness; from there back to the third; from there to the twelfth; 
from there to the sixth, etc. 

Skip draws are used in the production of skip twill and 
other fancy weaves. They have the appearance of a series of 
straight draws, one following the other. They are made by 
drawing a number of ends straight, then beginning over again, 
starting one or more harness higher (if the first end was drawn 
on the first harness, the first end, when beginning over again, 
should be started on any harness between the second and last, 
inclusive) . 

Fig. 39 il'ustrates a skip draw, skipping after every five ends. 




Front 
Figure 39 

Sectional draws are used in the manufacture of fabrics 
which have either fancy weave or fancy color stripes; also in the 
manufacture of damask table cloths, towels, etc., where two 
weaves are combined, each weave receiving its separate set of 
harness-frames. The front set of harness-frames is usually 




DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 



rr: 
ft- 










Front 
Figure 41 



to begin 



reserved for the ground weave, and the set, or sets, in back of 
this is used for the figure. Fig. 40 illustrates a sectional draw. 
Harness-frames 1 to 4, inclusive, form the first set and are used 
for the ground weave; harness-frames 5 to 12, inclusive, form 
the second set and are used for the figure. 

Double draws are sometimes classed w^th sectional draws, 
and are mostly used for double >three- 
ply, or more, cloth weaves. In this 
case one set of harness-frames is re- 
served for the face weave and the 
other set, or sets, is reserved for the 
back weave, etc. Fig. 41 illustrates 
a double draw made for a double 
cloth weave. Harness-frames 1 to 8, 
inclusive, form the first set and are 
used for the face weave; harness- 
frames 9 to 1(3, inclusive, form the 
second set and are used for the back weave. 

When making a drawing-in draft for a weave it is customary 
y drawing the first end of the weave on the first 
harness-frame, the second end on the second harness-frame, 
etc., if the weave repeats on but a few number of ends and a 
straight draw is at all practical. In making a drawing-in draft 
for a weave which requires a fancy draw, it is also customary to 
draw the first end on the first harness-frame, the second end on 
the second harness-frame, if it interlaces differently from the 
first end, etc., and draw all the ends which interlace in the same 
manner on the same harness-frames. 

Fig. 42 illustrates a fancy draw made from the weave A. 
In order to help the student to understand the above better, let 
us add that ends interlace alike when they are raised over, and 
lowered under, the same picks throughout the weave In Fig. 42 
the end drawn on the first harness interlaces -3-3-t-3-!?-3-3 
■2-^^3^. The next end interlacing in the same manner is the 
seventh; consequently the first and seventh ends are drawn on 
the first harness-frame; these are the only ends interlacing in this 
way; that is, ^g^giy^g^^j^g^g^g^gJ-, therefore these are the only 
ends drawn on the first harness-frame. 

The second end interlaces -3-3-3-3-3-3-3-^. The next 
end interlacing in this way is end No. 8, then No. 14, 20, 
26, 32, 38 and 44. All these ends weaving ^3 throughout 
are drawn on the same harness-frame. The student can now 
compare the interlacing of the different ends and find that all 
those ends weaving (interlacing) alike are drawn on the same 
harness-frame. 

Fig. 42 illustrates a draw made on the least-number-of- 

22 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 



harness-frame principle, from weave Fig. 
illustrates a draw for the same weave (Fig. 
straightness of the draw has received more 
the number of harness-frames to be used. 



rjssTJ'A^jmrji^Y^ 



■K" u -ss. -as. -B. -a. ^a. -s 






O^y'JSSfJ'j 



Fig. 42.— A. 



■*!- ■:- "-a 
-». a: 88S 



Figure 44 




Figure 43 



Figure 45 



paper, from the weave, after the drawing 
made. On point paper the spaces between 

23 



, 42, A. Fig. 43 
42, A), in which the 
consideration than 
In this draw the 
number of 
heddles (ends 
drawn on 
each harness- 
f r am e) on 
each harness- 
frame are 
alike. No 
harness-frame 
is crowded 
with heddles, 
thus helping 
materially in 
the weaving. 
But it must 
also be con- 
sidered that 
in draw Fig- 
ure 42, only 
18 harness- 
frames are re- 
quired, while 
draw Figure 
43, calls for 
24 harness- 
frames, mak- 
ing a differ- 
ence of six. 

{B) A 
"chain draft" 
is a plan ac- 
cording to 
which the 
different har- 
ness-frames 
are raised 
and lowered. 
Chain drafts 
are planned 
on point 
in draft has been 
the perpendicular 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

lines indicate the harness-frames, and the spaces between the 
horizontal lines indicate the picks. When a harness-frame is to 
be raised over a certain pick, the block at their intersection is 
filled in, indicating a raiser. When a harness-frame is to be 
lowered under a certain pick, the block at their intersection is 
not filled in, indicating a sinker. 

After the drawing-in draft is made and the number of 
harness-frames to be used decided upon, the chain draft is 
made. The first step towards making a chain draft is to reserve 
as many ends (spaces between perpendicular lines) on the right- 
hand side of the weave, as harness-frames are required. The 
space between the perpendicular lines nearest to the weave (the 
farthest to the left) always indicates the first harness-frame; 
the next space to the right indicates the Second harness-frame, 
etc. After this is all arranged the chain draft can be planned. 

Fill in the space reserved for the first harness-frame with 
raisers and sinkers corresponding to the raisers and sinkers of 
the end drawn on the first harness-frame. (The drawing-in 
draft must be constantly kept in the eye in order to get the right 
rotation of the harness-frames.) The space reserved for the 
second harness-frame is then filled in with the raisers and sinkers 
corresponding to the raisers and sinkers of the end drawn on the 
second harness-frame, etc. Fig. 44 illustrates a chain draft 
made according to weave Fig. 42 A, and drawing-in draft under 
Fig. 42. Fig. 45 illustrates a chain draft made according to 
weave Fig. 42, A, and drawing-in draft Fig. 43. 

The following points must be remembered when laying out 
drawing-in and chain drafts. 

(1) Always begin with the end farthest to the left when 
making a drawing-in draft. 

(2) Draw only those ends on the same harness-frame 
which interlace exactly alike 

(3) In a drawing-in draft the picks (spaces between the 
horizontal lines) indicate the harness-frames, and in chain 
drafts the ends (spaces between the perpendicular lines) indicate 
the harness-frames. 

(4) The raisers and sinkers in the chain draft must corre- 
spond to the raisers and sinkers in the weave, because the ends 
in the weave regulate the raising and lowering of the harness- 
frames on which they are drawn. 

16. Broken Twills. Broken twills, derived from the 
regular twills, have twill lines running both from left to right 
and from right to left. They are best made of even-sided twills 
and of such twills as ^^, J-5 and ^y; i. e., such filling or 
warp-effect twills as have an odd number of raisers or sinkers 

24 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

in any series of raisers and sinkers in the entire weave. Twills 
like the -j-^-^ are also adapted for broken twill, but those 
like the ^3^5 are not at all adapted for the sort. The reason 
for this will readily be seen in the following: 

Broken twills are made by running the line of a regular 
twill, for a certain number of ends to the right (these twills can 
also be started with the twill line running to the left), after 
which the direction of the twill line is changed, running it to the 
left for the required number of ends. Where the direction of the 
twill line is changed, a " Clear Break " is formed by causing 
the raisers of the first end of the twill line running to the left 
to come opposite the sinkers of the last end of the twill line 
running to the right. In the case of filling-effect twills being 
used, the raiser of the first end running to the left should come 
in the centre of the series of sinkers on the last end running to 
the right. In the case of warp-effect twills, the sinker will 
come in the centre of the series of raisers. 






Figure 46 



Fig. 46 illustrates a broken twill made from the regular 
^3j twill, the. lines running for 4 ends to the right, 2 ends to 
the left, 6 ends to the right, and 4 ends to the left. This weave 
repeats on 16 ends and 4 picks. 

F g. 46, A, is the drawing-in draft for the above weave, and 
Fig. 46, B, is the chain draft for same. 

Fig. 47 illustrates the ^j broken twill, 2 
ends to the right and 2 ends to the left. Fig. 
48 illustrates the filling-effect of Fig. 47. 
Both of these weaves are known as the " four- 
harness (leaf) satin," " four-leaf clover," and 
" crowfoot weave." 
Fig. 49 illustrates a broken twill made from the ^^ regular 
twill, by running the line for 8 ends to the right, then reversing 
same and running it for 3 ends to the left. This weave is 
carried out for one repeat wide and 2 repeats high; A is the 
drawing-in draft and B is the chain draft. This weave will 
also illustrate the rule that " In broken twills a weave will not 

25 





Figure 47 



Figure 48 



DESIGXIXG AND COXSTRUCTIOX 

repeat until the first end of the first twill line running to the 
right, interlaces again the same as the first end of the weave, 
at the same time forming a clear break with the last end of the 
last twill line runnine to the left." 




Figure 49 

Broken twills are used in nearly all classes of woven fabrics, 
but mostlv in fancv worsteds and woolens. 



•uss- 



c^y-jf 



SSSSa 



17. Figured Broken Twills. Broken twills are figured by 
means of clear breaks both warp and filling ways. After every 
clear-break line the direction of the twill is reversed, thus forming 
blocks of right and left-hand twills. 

Fancy broken twills are used in fancy worsteds and woolens 
and sometimes in cloakings; they are also found in other fabrics 
of a fancy character. 

The figuring is generally done according to some motive; 
the -^5 and the ^^ regular twills are best adapted for this 
class. 

Fig. 50 illustrates a fig- 
ured broken twill made 
from the regular ^^ twill 
according to motive Fig. 
50, A. Every block in the 
motive represents 8 ends 
and S picks, B and C repre- 
senting the drawing-in and 
chain drafts respectively, 
of weave Fig. 50. 

Fig. 51 illustrates a fig- 
ured broken twill made 
from the regular ^2 twill 
^'s\irt 50 according to motive Fig. 

51, A. Every block in the motive represents 8 ends and 8 picks. 
Fig. 51, B is the drawing-in draft and C the chain draft. 



V<.VJK. 



.^■Kik; 




18. Skip Twills. 



In skip twills, as in broken twills, clear 
26 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

breaks are formed, but the twill lines continue in the same 
direction. 





B 



Figure 51 

They are made by running a twill line for a certain number 
of ends in either direction (usually to the right), then skipping 
a sufficient number of ends, in order to form a clear break, 
continuing the twill line in the same direction. Those twills 
best adaptable for broken are also adaptable for skip twills. 



%% 



t9w^ 



m 



B 



w^ . -^M-l-I ■■ BMB 1 MiM 1 , m 


in — 


u ■ M" ■■■ as. ". "ss 


^ 


■ .» .K- w .-a :. ■: 


AV 88' ■' >88 'Kk'SSi 


r^jfJTK-',^ 


^ 




bfBWri 


^-HJ 1 b^^k^n 1 Hd 1 rw 1 rw 



Figure 52 Figure 53 

Fig. 52 illustrates a skip twill made from the regular ^^ 
twill, by taking two ends and skipping one. Fig. 52, A and B, 
are the drawing-in and chain drafts, respectively, for this weave. 

Skip twills, with lines running to the right and lines running 

27 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 



to the left, are sometimes combined, forming what may be 
termed " Broken Skip Twills." F g. 53 ilustrates one of these 
made from the regular ^3 twill, by taking 6 ends and skipping 
2. The direction of the line is changed after skipping three 
times. The left-hand twill is carried out in a corresponding 
manner to the right-hand. 

19. Fancy Skip Twills. Fancy effects may be produced 
by means of skip twills, by forming skips in the twill lines both 
warp and filling ways, thus forming little blocks surrounded by 
clear break lines. This gives the appearance of warp effect 
gradually changing into filling effect. 



j',fr#'rfjjffj 



rr»Jtjty/wFA 



mirVrll^'. 



A 5 




B 



Figure 54 

Fig. 54 illustrates a fancy skip twill made from the regular 
^4, by taking 4 and skipping 3, both warp and filling ways. 
Fig. 54, A and B, respectively, illustrates the drawing-in and 
chain draft for this weave. 

20. Diagonal (Steep) Twills. Regular twills have a line 
which forms an angle of 45 degrees. Twills can be made with 
fines of a steeper or higher degree, by taking but every other 
end of the regular twill, or every third end, etc. 

Fig. 55 is a diagram which illustrates the different degree- 
twills ordinarilv used in the designing of textile fabrics. The 
degree of the twill line in the cloth does not always correspond 
with the degree of the twill line on the designing paper, due to 

28 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

having more ends than picks per inch in the cloth, or vice versa. 
For this reason it is often necessary to use a twill with a steeper 
Hne than that required in the cloth, when more picks per inch 
than ends per inch are called for. At times a steep twill line is 
required in the cloth, especially for fabrics known as 
" Diagonals." 




Figure 55 

The diagonal (steep) twills most often used are the 63, 70, 
and 75-degree. With some of these steep twills figured effects 
are obtained. 

63-degree twills are made from the regular (45-degree) ones 

29 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 



wmm 



B 



Figure 56 



by omitting every other end of the regular twills, thus causing 
every successive end to interlace two picks higher than the pre- 
ceding one. 

Fig. 56 illustrates the construction 
of a 63-degree twill. A is the regular 
^4 twill, from which the 63-degree 
twill is to be constructed. By omit- 
ting every other end of this twill (those 
on which the raisers are indicated 
with black) we obtain the 63-degree 
twill B. Upon examining B, we find 
that ever}^ successive end interlaces 
two picks higher than the preceding 
one, giving. a twill line of 63-degrees. 

Rule: If the regular twill, from 
which the 63-degree twill is to be 
formed, repeats on an even number of 
ends, the 63-degree twill repeats on 
one-half that number of ends; other- 
wise the same number of ends is 
required as in the regular twill. 

70-degree twills are made from the 
regular (45-degree) by omitting two out of every three ends of 
the regular twill, thus causing every successive end to interlace 
three picks higher than the preceding one. 

Fig. 57 illustrates the 
construction of a 70-degree [ 
twill. A is the regular -^-4 
twill from which the 70- 
degree is to be constructed; 
by omitting two ends (those 
on which the raisers are 
indicated with heavy black) 
out of every three of this, 
we obtain the 70-degree 
twill B. Upon examining 
B, we find that every suc- 
cessive end interlaces three 
picks higher than the pre- 
ceding one, thus giving a 
twill line of 70-degrees. 

Rule: If the regular 
twill, from which the 70- 
degree is to be constructed, 
repeats on a number of 
ends which is a multiple 




IFigvire 57 



30 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 



of three, the 70-degree twill repeats on one-third that number 
of ends; otherwise the same number of ends is required as in the 
regular twill. 

75-degree twills are made from the regular (45-degree) 
by omitting three ends out of every four of the regular twill, 
thus causing eA^ery successive end to interlace four picks 
higher than the preceding one. 

Fig. 58 illustrates 
the construction of a 75- 
degree twill. A is the 
regular ^- twill from 
which the 75-degree is 
to be constructed. By 
omitting three ends 
(those on which the 
raisers are indicated with 
heavy black) out of every 
four of this twill, we ob- 
tain the 75-degree, B. 
Upon examining B, we 
find that every succes- 
sive end interlaces four 
picks higher than the 
preceding one, thus giv- 
ing a twill line of 75- 
degrees. 

Rule : If the regu- 
lar twill, from which the 
75-degree is to be con- 




Figure 58 



structed, repeats on a number of ends which is a multiple of four, 
the 75-degree twill repeats on one-fourth that number of ends; if 
the regular twill repeats on a number of ends which is a multiple of 
two, the 75-degree repeats on one-half that number of ends; if 
the regular twill repeats on a number of ends which is not a mul- 
tiple of four nor two, the same number of ends is required for 
one repeat of the 75-degree as for one repeat of the regular twill. 

21. Reclining (27-degree) Twills. Of the recHning twills 
we will consider the 27-degree only. The other twills of this 
order are so little used that it does not seem necessary to go into 
more detail concerning them than is shown in Fig. 55. 

In the steep twills we omitted one or more ends, taking only 
every other one, every third and every fourth one. In the 
27-degree twill we take every end twice; i. e., two times in suc- 
cession, thus causing only every other end to interlace one pick 
higher than the preceding one. 

31 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

Fig. 59 illustrates' the construction of a 27-degree twill. 
A is the regular ^-o twill from which the 27-degree is to be con- 
structed. By taking every end of the regular twill twice, we 



m 



y^v 




.=<^ 






Figure 59 Figure 60 

obtain the 27-degree twill B. Upon examining B, we find every 
other end interlacing one pick higher than the preceding end, 
thus giving a twill line of 27 degrees. 

Twice the number of ends are required for one repeat of a 
27-degree twill, as for one repeat of the regu ar twill from which 
it is constructed. 



an |i i^Biiiii 1 1 |i J' I i' ij J 







B 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 



STHTa.'H.-V 



03 



22. Curved Twills. By 

combining twills of the differ- 
ent degrees some very pretty 
effects can be obtained, form- 
ing curved twill lines. 

When laying out curved 
twills, it is customary to first 
make an outline in pencil, then 
have the twill follow this line. 

Fig. 60 illustrates an ele- 
mentary form of curved twills. 
It is made from the regular 
^4 twill with the first eight 
ends interlacing as in a 45- 
degree twill. The next eight 
ends interlace as in a 63- 
degree; the next four ends 
interlace as in a 70-degree; 
and the last six ends interlace 
as in a 63-degree twill. 

Fig. 61 illustrates a curved 
twill of a more elaborate 
nature. It is made from the 
regular -4-3-2 16 -harness 
twill. A and B, respectiA^ely, 
are the drawing-in and chain 
draft for this weave. 

23. Pointed Twills. Point- 
edjl wills, like the broken, have 
twill lines running both to the 
right and to the left, but, un- 
like broken ones, they have 
no clear break lines at the 
points where the direction of 
the twill is changed. Instead 
they come to a " Point;" i. e., 
the twill lines meet, forming a 
point. 

The point is formed by the 
last end of every twill line 
running in either direction. 
The first end after the point 
interlaces like the end pre- 
ceding the point, etc. 
Fig. 62 illustrates a pointed twill made from the regular --^^2 

33 




Figure 62 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 



8-harness twill by running the twill for seven ends to the 
right, then reversing its direction and running it for four ends to 
the left. The weave repeats on 88 ends and 8 picks; it is carried 
out for one repeat wide and three repeats high. 

When laying out pointed twills, those of a loose nature 
should be avoided, because the pointed ones are inclined to form 
long filling floats near the point. 

From Fig. 62 it can be seen that quite a number of effects 
can be obtained by means of pointed twills, the whole effect 
being made by the point draw (see Fig. 62, A). Fig. 62, B is 
the chain draft for this weave. This is an advanced variety of 

pointed twills. One of plainer con- 
struction can be obtained by running 
the twill line of the regular ---o twill 
for four ends to the right, and then 
reversing its direction and running it 
for four ends to the left. This weave 
is illustrated bv Fior. 63. 




Figure 63 



24. Figured Pointed Twills. By having the twill lines come 
to a point, both warp and filling ways, figured pointed twills are 
produced. They are generally made according to some motive. 
The filled-in blocks (raisers), in the motive, generally call for 
right-hand twill, and the blank blocks (sinkers) generally call 
for the left-hand. 

Fig. 64 illustrates a figured 
pointed twill made from the regular 
--"2 twill according to motive A. Every 
block in the motive calls for eight 
ends and eight picks in the weave. 

Fig. 65 illustrates a figured point- 
ed twill made from the regular -3-^1-3- 
twill according to motive A. Every ^ 
block in the motive represents one 
(1) end and 13 picks. B and C, 
respectively, of Fig. 65 represent the drawing-in and chain 
draft; from these it can be seen that this w^eave requires but 14 
harness-frames. 




Figvire 64 



25. Double Twill Effects. This class of weaves gives the 
eft'ect of twill lines of right-hand twill, crossing over twill lines 
of left-hand, or vice versa. 

The effect is produced with the help of regular twills which 
have a broad line of filling-effect, such as the regular ^-^ 
twill, etc. On this line of filling-effect, twill lines of warp-effect 
are placed, which run in the opposite direction to the filling 

34 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

twill line. For this purpose twills of the nature of the regular 
-2-2 are generally employed. When laying out weaves of this 
order, care must be taken that the lines of left-hand twill will 
not interfere with those of right-hand. 



H^ 



'm 



m 



£H 



1 



'^^siiiss^i^:^^^!^^^^^-. 




Figure 65 

Weaves of this character, at times, require more ends than 
picks for one repeat, or vice versa. In regard to this, it is cus- 
tomary to keep the repeat of the weave at 
as small a number of ends as possible and 
practical, in order to minimize the number 
of harness frames. 

Fig. 66 illustrates the regular ---« right- 
hand twill crossed by the regular --^ left- 
hand twill 



hW-VjiJ 



26. Fancy Twill Effects. Using twills 
with broad lines of filling-effect, and plac- 
ing a fancy arrangement of raisers and 
sinkers (or some weave) on the twill line 

of filling-effect, very pretty 
effects can be obtained 



?-:<s>;-j 



Figure 66 



pro 






-W^lVl 



Figure 67 



Basket weaves, warp and fill- hj 
ing-rib weaves, and combina- 
tion weaves are generally 
used for this purpose. 

Fig. 67 is a fancy twill 
effect made from the regular 
-"9-2-3 right-hand twill with a ^ig"''^ ^8 

2 and 2 basket weave on its filling float of nine. 

35 



■.■■■■« 

■■■i 

■■■«?.■■«■: 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

These effects can be varied by figuring every other line of 
filling-effect only. Fig. 68 illustrates one of these weaves. It 
is made from the regular -2-^2_ right-hand twill with a 2 and 2 
basket on the filling float of seven. The basket weave is started 
so that a complete square of filling-effect will run along the centre 
of the twill line. 

27. Entwining Twills. These are probably the most novel 
of all the weaves derived from the regular (45-degree) twills. 
They have the appearance of sets of right-hand twill lines inter- 
lacing (entwining) with sets of left-hand twill lines. Weaves best 
adapted for the construction of entwining twills are the regular 
-2,-3»-4, etc., twills. 

In order to lay out one of these weaves it is necessary 
first to find the number of ends and picks required for one repeat 
of the weave; this is done by the following rule: 

Rule: Multiply the number of ends required in one repeat 
of the regular twill (from which the entwining twill is to be con- 
structed) by the number of twill lines to one set, required in the 
entwining twill. 

Fig. 69 is an entwining twill made from 
the regular ---^ twill, having two twill lines in 
every set. To illustrate the above rule: The 
^2 twill repeats on four ends; the entwining 
twill is to have two twill lines; according to the 
rule 4x2=8 ends are required for one repeat of 
the entwining twill. Fig. 69. 

Every twill line in an eniwining twill 
Figure 69 should extend over one-half the number of ends 

on which the weave repeats. 
When constructing these weaves, the best plan to follow 
is to carry the first twill line for as many ends to the right as 
the weave requires, beginning the twill line in the same manner 
as you would the regular one; then carry the twill line for the 
same number of ends to the left, beginning on the end next to 
the one on which the right-hand twill line terminated, by placing 
the lowest raiser on the pick above the highest raiser of the right- 
hand twill line. The other twill lines are now filled-in; they 
must all extend over the same number of ends as the first lines. 
When the regular ^-^ twill is used in the construction of 
an entwining twill, it is customary to place an extra raiser in 
the centre of the three raisers, on the next end to the ones on 
which the different twill lines terminate. 

Another way of constructing entwining twills from the 
regular -^-g twill, is by beginning the first twill line running 
to the right, on the first end of the weave with two up, then 

36 



m 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 



running the twill line (to the right) for one end beyond the 
number of ends required (see rule). On this last end, but two 
raisers are placed (in accordance with the twill line) , the highest 
raiser coming on the same pick as the highest raiser of the 
preceding end. The twill line running to the left is also started, 
and terminates with two up; the twill line begins on the same end 
on which the other terminates, one sinker being placed between 
the highest raiser of the right-hand twill line, and the lowest 
raiser of the left-hand line. All the other twill lines are carried 
out in the same manner, i. e., always beginning with two raisers 
and ending with two raisers. They all extend one end beyond 
the number of ends called for by the rule. 

Fig. 70 is an entwining 
twill made from the regular 
3-^ twill, having three twill 
lines. This weave is con- 
structed in the manner 
mentioned above; i. e., all 
twill lines begin and ter- 
minate with two raisers. 

When the regular -t„ 
twill is used in the con- 
struction of entwining 
twills, it is customary to 
place two extra raisers in 
the centre of the four 
raisers, on the next end to 
the ones on which the 
different twill lines ter- 
minate. 

In all entwining twills, 
no lines of right-hand twill 




^ 



Figure 70 

should interfere with those of the 



left-hand twill, and vice versa. 

28, Fancy Weaves Produced on the Entwining Twill 
Principle. When using regular twills, which have a longer 
filling-float than warp-float, for the construction of entwining 
twills, diamond-shaped squares of sinkers are formed, surrounded 
by twill lines. 

In this case the twill lines are generally carried out over 
about three-quarters the number of ends required in one repeat 
of the weave. These weaves are planned so that the twill lines 
running to the left terminate at the centre of the twill lines 
running to the right, and vice versa. 

The diamond-shaped squares of sinkers, produced by these 
weaves, can be filled up by other weaves, or they can remain empty. 

37 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 



Fig. 71 illustrates one of these 






weaves made from the 
regular ---a-^-y? twill; the 
squares in this weaA^e 
are filled out with a fig- 
ured broken twill. This 
weave, besides illustrat- 
ing the principle, sug- 
gests the variety of 
effects which can be 
produced with these 
weaves. 

Sometimes regular en- 
twining twills are broken 
up, forming what may 
be termed " Broken 
Entwining Twills." 
They are carried out in 
the same manner as the 
regular entwining twills 
for a certain number of 
ends, then a clear break 



Figure 71 

is formed (in the same manner 
as in broken twills), and the 
direction of the twill line re- 
versed. The break lines can 
occur both warp and filling 
ways. 

Fig. 72 illustrates one of 
these weaves; it is made from 
the regular -- o entwining twill 
(with eight twill lines), the 
break occurring after the six- 
teenth end and after the six- 
teenth pick. 

29. Corkscrew Weaves. 

Corkscrew weaves are derived 
from the regular twill weaves, 
and are made by placing the 

regular twill on every alternate end, then placing the same twill 
on the ends skipped, in such a manner as to make the sinkers of 
the even numbered ends come opposite the raisers of the odd 
numbered ends. Placing the regular twill on but every other 
end gives a twill line of 27 degrees. 

Fig. 73 A shows the regular ^^^ twill ; B shows the same 
started J^^-. By first placing twill A on the odd numbered 

38 




Figure 72 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 



^ywy. 



'J^T 



?::»'■: 



Figure 73 



ends, and twill B on the even numbered ends, the corkscrew 
weave C is formed. This of all 
corkscrew weaves, can be woven on 
the least number of harness-frames. 
The regular twills best adapted 
for the construction of these weaves 
are (besides the above) the ^75, "t^, 
^5, and other regular twills of this 
nature. 

Corkscrew weave fabrics close- 
ly resemble those woven with warp- 
ribs, the rib lines running diagon- 
ally across the fabric. The face 
and back of fabrics woven with 
corkscrew weaves are made up of the warp. The filling lying 
embedded between the ends is practically invisible. A high 
number of ends and a lower number of picks per inch are gener- 
ally used in the weaving of these fabrics; this brings the twill 
line to an angle of 45 degrees in the cloth. Corkscrew weaves 
are generally drawn-in on the double-draw principle. 

Corkscrew weaves, which have a twill of a loose nature for 
their foundation, often receive an extra amount of stitching. 
This is done by the raising of the ends in the centre, or as near to 
the centre as possible, of their long filling float. 

Two weaves are sometimes 
combined in the construction of 
corkscrew weaves. In this way 
twill lines of different widths 
may be formed. Fig. 74 illus- 
trates one of these corkscrew 
weaves made from the regular 
-^3 and 4^ twills. Both twills 
are started as called for. 

With twills like the regular 

--5-3"^' corkscrew weaves can be 

formed which have twill lines of 

different widths. In this case 

the regular twill is to be used 

as the regular twills are used in 

the construction of weaves like 

^^^^'""^^ the one under Fig. 73, i.e., the 

twill on the odd numbered ends is to be started different from 

that on the even numbered ends. 

In the foregoing only such corkscrew weaves have been con- 
sidered as form fabrics in which the face and the back are made 
up of the warp, the filling being practically invisible. 

39 






l^air 



' J^ 4 



'iWiW/lw?; 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 



With filling effect twills (like the regular ^^ twill), cork- 
screw weaves can be formed which have lines of both warp and 
filling on the face and back of the goods. 

30. Figured Corkscrew Weaves. Corkscrew weaves can be 
figured by means of the " Filling," " Curving of the Twill Lines" 
and by means of the " Warp." 

As mentioned above (in corkscrew weaves like the one 
illustrated by Fig. 73) the face and back of the fabrics woven with 
these corkscrew weaves are made up of the warp, the filling lying 
embedded between the ends being practically invisible. By 
omitting some of .the raisers on two or more of the odd numbered 
ends (omitting raisers on the even numbered ends will give the 
same result), filling floats are produced which may extend over 
from three to five, and more ends. By allowing two or more 
picks to float in succession, spots of filling floats are formed, 
which stand out distinctly. This method of figuring corkscrew 
weaves is employed in piece dyes (where usually a two-ply warp 
and a single filling are used), fancy vesting, etc. The effect is 
heightened by the use of lustre yarn, and sometimes silk, for the 
figure picks. The spots may be arranged according to some 

motive. 

Fig. 75 shows a figured 
corkscrew weave made from 
the regular ^-^ corkscrew. 
The filling spots are produced 
by floating the third pick 
over the third end, and the 
fourth pick over the third 
and fifth ends. The spots are 
arranged according to motive 
Fig. 75, A. Every block in 
the motive represents seven 
ends and seven picks in the 
weave. 

When laying-out these 

Figure 75 wcavcs, carc must be taken 

to have the spots occur on 

the corresponding place of every repeat of the regular corkscrew 

weave. 

Curves in corkscrew weaves can be obtained in much the 
same manner as in curved twills; the lines generally being run 
from left to right and reverse. The slope of the twill lines is never 
as steep on paper as the 63-degree lines and indeed very seldom 
as steep as 45-degrees. 

Warp figures in corkscrew Aveaves are generally made with 

40 




OF WOVEN FABRICS 

a warp of two kinds of yarn. The yams differ in size, material 
or color. The odd numbered ends are usually of one kind of yam, 
and the even numbered ends are of another. When using two 
colors with this arrangement, twill lines of different colors will 
result. 

Moreover the odd numbered ends can produce the figure, by 
lengthening and shortening the warp floats (according to the 
effect to be produced), and the even numbered ends can produce 
the ground, or vice versa. 



mmmmm 
mimmim 



Figure 76 

Fig. 76 illustrates one of these effects. 

Besides the different corkscrew weaves mentioned above, 
filling effect corkscrews can be formed. These are made in much 
the same manner as warp effect corkscrews, the picks of the reg- 
ular twill are placed on the odd numbered picks of the corkscrew 
weaves. The even numbered picks may then be filled in in 
accordance with the warp effect corkscrew, i.e., the raisers of the 
even numbered picks against the sinkers of the odd numbered 
ones. 



41 



'i( 



CHAPTER FOUR. 



WEAVES DERIVED FROM THE SATIN WEAVES. 



31. Double Satins. In regular satin weaves every end and 
pick receives but one interlacing in one repeat of the weave. In 
double satins, extra points of interlacing are added to those in 
the regular satin; thus the name " Double Satins." 

The purpose in making these double satin weaves is to 
increase the amount of interlacing of dhe regular satin. In this 
way a tighter interlacing is obtained, which adds strength to the 
fabric, and, at the same time, does a#ay with extra long floats of 
both warp and filling without changing the satin effect. 

The extra amount of interlacing is added by means of extra 
raisers to the raisers of the filling-effect satins, and extra sinkers 
to the sinkers of the warp-effect satin weaves. 

When laying-out these weaves it must be remembered that 
the satin effect is not to be disturbed and the floats of either warp 
or filling, whichever forms the face of the fabric, are not to be 
broken up too much. When constructing a double satin for 
filling-effect face, it is customary to add the extra raisers on either 
side of the original raisers; when constructing one of these weaves 
for warp-effect face, it is customary to add the extra sinkers on 
either top or bottom of the original sinkers. Extra raisers or 
sinkers added to either corner of the original raisers and sinkers 
are generally used in only those weaves which repeat on eight or 
more threads. Adding the extra points at either corner gives a 
very strong interlacing. 




I^-TI 







Figure 77 Figure 78 Figure 79 

Figs. 77, 78, and 79 will illustrate the principle of double 
satin weaves. Fig. 77 is made from the five-harness satin; the 
extra raisers are added on the sides of the original raisers of the 
filling effect of this satin. The original raisers, for (me repeat, 

42 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

are indicated by dark blocks. This weave is best suited for filling 
effects; the filling floats, not being broken up enough to interfere 
with the satin effect, leaving floats of three; the warp floats are 
broken up to -j--^, the longest float being two. 

Fig. 78 shows a double satin suitable for warp effects; it is 
made from the five-harness satin. The original sinkers in the 
first repeat, are indicated by light blocks. 

Fig. 79 shows a double satin suitable both for warp and 
filling effects; the extra raisers are added on the upper right-hand 
corner of the original raisers. It is made from the eight-harness 
satin; the original raisers are indicated for one repeat by dark 
blocks. 

This class of weaves is used in cotton fabrics which have a 
plain weave ground and satin stripes, in striped worsted goods, 
and as the pile weave in chinchilla overcoatings, etc. 



32. Granite Weaves. Under this heading weaves are 
described which give the cloth a rough, broken -up appearance. 
They are usually made from the filling-effect satin weaves by the 
addition of extra raisers. 

A good granite should have the following characteristics: 
The interlacing should be broken up; no floats should extend 
over more than four ends or picks; no pronounced twill lines 
should be visible on the face; they should be as even sided as 
possible; i.e., there should be as many raisers as sinkers in one 
repeat of the weave. 

The smallest satin that can be used in the construction of 
granite weaves is the seven -harness. This satin, however, is 
little used for their construction, those from eight-harness and 
upwards being generally employed. 

The extra raisers in the construction of granite weaves may 
be added on top, below, on either side, or in either corner of the 
original raisers. More than one raiser must be added to every 
original raiser, in order to make the weave even sided. The 

raisers can also be 

added according to 

some other weave 

between the raisers of 

the satin. 

Fig. 80 illustrates a 

granite weave made 

from the regular 

eight - harness satin. 

The extra raisers, 

three in all, are added 
one above and two on the right-hand 




Figure 80 




Figure 81 



43 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

side of the original raisers of the fiUing-effect satin weave. The 
original raisers of the satin weave, for one repeat, are indicated 
by dark blocks. 

Fig. 81 illustrates a granite weave made from the regular 
ten-harness satin. The original raisers of the satin weave, for 
one repeat, are indicated by dark blocks. 

Besides the above, there are numerous other ways of con- 
structing granite weaves. Another method is to rearrange the 
ends of twill weaves, specially twills which repeat on an odd num- 
ber of ends. These can be rearranged to produce various changes 
of this kind. 

Still another method of constructing granite weaves is by 
the overturning of squares of weaves; i.e., after carrying out a 
weave in the regular manner for a certain number of ends and 
picks (usually a twill weave, or some weave of a fancy arrange- 
ment of raisers and sinkers), overturn the weave by forming 
clear break lines, and, at the same time, change the weave so 
that raisers are changed to sinkers, and vice versa. 

Fig. 82 will illustrate this principle and make it clearer to 
the student. The first repeat (eight ends 
and 8 picks) is divided into four squares, 
A, B, C, and D. A fancy arrangement of 
raisers and sinkers is first placed in square 
A; then by overturning this weave and 
placing it in the squares B and D, con- 
necting with square A, exchang'ng raisers 
for sinkers and vice versa. The other 
square, C, is then readily filled in. 

33. Clear Breaks in Satin Weaves. In such fabrics as 
damask table covers, etc., it is required to have warp and filling 
effect satin in the same fabric. Usually blocks of warp-effect 
satin change off with blocks of filling-effect satin. Where the 
satin changes from warp to filling-effect, clear breaks are formed 
(this means checkerboard and similar effects only), by making 
the raisers of the filling-effect satin come opposite the sinkers of 
the warp-effect. This can only be done if there is no point 
of interlacing at the intersection of the first end and first pick, 
the first end and last pick, the last end and first pick, and the 
last end and last pick. In other words, there should be no point 
of interlacing in any of the corners of one repeat of the weave. 
To obtain this point, the satin weaves must never be started 
with the first end or any other end which interlaces with either 
the first or last pick, nor with an end next to any one of these. 

Another point to observe in the construction of these 
weaves, is to use the opposite counter in constructing the blocks 

44 




OF WOVEN FABRICS 



of warp-effect, to the one used in the construction of the blocks 

of filhng-effect. For instance, if an eight-harness satin is used, 

the counter can be either three 
or five; in this case the counter 
three or five can be used in the 
construction of the filHng- 
effect, and the other counter 
(either five or three) must be 
used in the construction of the 
warp-effect. 

Fig. 83 iUustrates the above 
principle. A block of warp- 
effect, 10 bv 10, is surrounded 
by filling effect, 10 by 10. The 
5-harness satin is used. Two 
is the counter for the filling- 
effect, and three is the counter 
F'g^''^ ^^ for the warp-effect. 

Blocks of warp and filling-effect satin can also be arranged 

according to some motive 

are obtained. 




bv which means some novel effects 



34. Shaded Satins. Satin weaves are shaded by the 
addition of raisers to the raisers of the filling-effect, at regular 
intervals, until the warp-effect satin is obtained. 

When laying out these weaves the entire 
space to be occupied by the weave is filled-in 
with the filling-eifect of the satin. Then this 
space is divided off into sections which require 
dift'erent shadings. Extra raisers are then added 
wherever required. For instance, if we wish to 
shade a five-harness satin from filling-effect to 
warp-effect, at intervals of ten picks each (this 
is shading in the direction of the warp), there 
will be four changes: first, filling-effect; second, 
one raiser added; third, two raisers added; and 
fourth, three raisers added. Every change 
requiring ten picks makes a total of forty picks 
for one repeat of the weave. The first thing to 
do, after laying off forty picks about two re- 
peats wide, is to fill in the filling-effect of the 
five-harness satin; then mark off the spaces, ten 
picks each, four in all; the first space (see A, in 
Fig. 84), is complete, being made up of filling- 
effect; to the next space, B, one raiser is added 
above every raiser of the filling-effect; in the next, the third 

45 




Figure 84 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

space, C, two raisers are added above every raiser of the 
filling-effect; in the fourth space, D, three raisers are added 
above every raiser of the filling-effect Fig. 84 illustrates the 
above explained weave. Letters A, B, C, and D, correspond with 
the letters in the above description. 

This same principle of shading is used in the shading of 
squares, curves, circles, etc. The method of construction is to 
place the filling-effect over the entire design; the extra raisers 
are added afterwards, as many and wherever the design requires 
it. 

In Jacquard figured effects, shading is mostly used to bring 
out the figures, etc. 



46 



CHAPTER FIVE. 

WEAVES FOR FABRICS CONSTRUCTED WITH TWO 
WARPS AND ONE FILLING. 

35. An Extra Warp for Weight. In woolens and worsteds, 
for men's wear, it is often impossible to produce a fabric of the 
required weight with but one warp and filling. In such cases 
an extra warp, an extra filling, or both, may be added. When 
adding an extra warp for weight to a fabric, the fabric is termed 
hacked by warp. For this purpose we must consider two warps, 
(a) the face warp, and (b) the back warp. The face warp weaves 
with the filling to form the face of the fabric, while the back warp 
weaves with the filling to form the back of the fabric. 

For the interlacing of the face warp a closer weave, — such as 
the -o twill, etc., — is usually employed than for the interlacing 
of the back warp, where satin weaves are mostly used. Filling 
effect weaves are always used for the interfacings of the back 
warp, while even sided and warp effect weaves are employed for 
the face; for special fabrics only, a filling effect weave is used for 
the interlacing of the face warp, in which every end interlaces 
but once in one repeat of the weave. The reason for this will be 
seen presently. 

The proportion of face and back mostly used is one of face 
to one of back, two of face to one of back, and three of face to 
one of back. The first two arrangements of face and back warps 
are mostly used. There should ncA^er be more back ends than 
face in the arrangement of an extra warp for weight fabric. 

The yarns for the back warp should not be coarser than those 
of the face warp, where the warps are arranged one of face to one 
of back, although it may be made of some cheaper material. In 
an arrangement of two of face to one of back, the back warp can 
be heavier than that of the face; the yarns for the back warp are 
usually of some cheaper material. In fabrics which are to be 
fulled after weaving, the back warp should have about the same 
amount of fulling properties as the face, otherwise the fabric will 
not have a finished, but baggy, appearance. 

In the weaving of fabrics with an extra warp for weight the 
back warp, at times, is placed on an extra beam. This is espe- 
cially the case when the weave used for the back has a much 
looser interlacing than the one used f^r the face. 

47 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

When laying out weaves for an extra warp for weight, it 
must always be remembered that unless the back warp is to be used 
for figuring, it should not interfere with the appearance of the 
face of the fabric; therefore the points of interlacing of the back 
weave must not be seen on the face; i.e., an invisible stitch must 
be made. This is done by having the raisers of the back warp 
arranged in relation to those of the face warp. There are three 
positions, in relation to those of the face warp, to which the 
raisers of the back warp may come. First, the raisers of the hack 
warp may come between two raisers of the face warp; second, the 
raisers of the hack warp may come between a raiser and a sinker of 
the face warp; third, the raisers of the back warp may come hetiueen 
two sinkers of the face warp. These are the three possible ways of 
interlacing (stitching) the back warp. 

The first produces an invisible stitch and should always be 
used, if possible. The second produces a fairly good stitch and 
should be used where the first can not. The third produces a 
visible stitch and should never be used where the back warp is 
not to be seen on the face of the fabric. 

When the back warp is raised over the filling between two 
raisers of the face warp, there is a face end raised over the same 
pick on both sides of the back end, which is completely covered 
by them. If the back warp is raised over the filling between a 
raiser and a sinker of the face warp, there will be one face end 
raised over the same pick on one side of the back end, thus partly 
covering it. In the third case the back end is raised over the 
filling between two sinkers of the face w^arp; in this, there is no 
possible chance of concealing the back end as there is no face 
end raised over the same pick near enough to the back end to 
cover it. This would make it stand out and change the effect on 
the face of the fabric. 

Fig. 8d is a section-cut illustrating the raising of a back end 
over the filling between two raisers of the face warp. The solid 
dots indicate the filling, the line ^4 indicates the face warp, and 



Figure 85 

the line B indicates the back warp. The -^j twill is used for the 
interlacing of the face warp and the eight-harness satin for the 
back. 

Fig. 86 illustrates the weave for section-cut Fig. 85. In 

48 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 



this case the warps are arranged one of face to one of back. The 
face weave repeats on four ends and four picks, the back weave 

repeats on eight ends and 
eight picks. Therefore eight 
back ends are required for 
one repeat of the weave; 
there being one face end 
to every back end, making 
the entire weave repeat on 
sixteen (16) ends and eight 
(8) picks. 







Figure 86 

Fig. 87 illustrates another one of 
these weaves. In this case the warps 
are arranged two of face to one of 
back; the face warp weaves accord- 
ing to the -T broken twill, two to 
the right and two to the left (four 
leaf clover), and the back warp 
weaves according to the filling effect 
of the same broken twill. 

This same principle, as in an extra 
warp for weight, is used in double 

face fabrics, found mostly in silk ribbons and in some cloak- 
ings. In these fabrics it is also necessary to produce an 
invisible stitch with the back warp. In the case of ribbons satin 
w^eaves are used, warp effect for the face and filling effect for the 
back of the fabric. 



Figure 87 



36. An Extra Warp for Figure. The principle of two warps 
and one filling is extensively employed in the production of spot 
and stripe effects used for ladies' dress goods, shirtings, etc. In 
this class w^e distinguish the warps as ground warp and figure 
warp. The ground warp weaves with the filling to produce the 
ground, or body of the goods, and the figure warp weaves with 
the filling to produce the figure upon the face of the goods. 

The warps can be arranged one of ground to one of figure, 
etc., over the entire fabric, or stripes of figure warp at certain 
intervals only may be used. For these stripes the warps are 
arranged one of ground to one of figure, etc., or the ground warp 
may be omitted, as in such fabrics where the figure warp forms 
stripes which cover the body (ground) of the fabric completely. 
Where the figure warp is to show on the face, in order to form the 
figure, it is raised over the filling and either floated on the face of 
the goods or (when the floats are too long), it is stitched down 
with a warp-effect satin. Where the figure warp is to be invisible 

49 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

it is allowed to float on the back, so that it can be sheared off 
during the finishing, or it may be stitched to the body of the 
fabric with some loosely interlaced weave according to the extra 
warp for weight principle; i.e., with an invisible stitch. 

In fabrics which are sheared after the weaving, it is cus- 
tomary to give the figure warp an extra point of interlacing 
before and after its appearance on the face of the fabric. This 
keeps the figure ends from pulling out after the shearing. Fig. 
88 illustrates this principle. This extra point of interlacing con- 
sists of a raiser and a sinker before the float, and a sinker and a 
raiser after the float. 

In Fig. 88 a plain weave ground is used, figured by means of 




Figure 88 

spots produced by an extra warp; the spots are arranged accord- 
ing to the five-harness satin. 

Fig. 89 illustrates a section-cut of weave Fig. 88, cut between 

FACE 



Figure 89 

the second and third figure end; A is figure end, B the ground 
end; the solid dots indicate the picks. 

37. Lappet and Swivel Weaving. Although the interlacing 
of warp and filling (weaves) is only to be mentioned in these 

50 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

chapters, nevertheless a few words will be said upon this 
subject. 

Lappet weaving is a form of extra warp for figure; the extra 
warp is passed from the rear, or above, the loom through the reed 
and through the eye of a needle which is set close in front of the 
reed. This needle is arranged so that it can move from side to 
side for various distances; one thread only is passed through each 
needle. These threads run direct from spools placed in the rear 
of the loom. With the lappet arrangement various-shaped spots 
may be produced such as oblong, diamond-shaped, round, etc. 

Lappet weaving is fast going out of use, and swivel weaving 
taking its place. The swivel consists of an extra lay placed over 
the regular lay of the loom; small shuttles are placed in various 
places across the lay. One of these small shuttles is required 
for every figure spot in the width of the fabric. 

The small shuttles are operated by means of a ratchet and 
pinion, separate from the operation of the shuttle in the regular 
lay. The figure threads are placed in these small shuttles, the 
shuttles travelhng back and forth (every small shuttle travels 
across but a short distance of the width of the fabric), carrying 
the figure thread along with them. The interlacing of the figure 
threads is regulated by the raising and lowering of the harness- 
frames. 

Producing spot effects by means of lapped and swivel weav- 
ing is a large saving in material, as every inch of yarn woven into 
the goods is used in the production of the effect, none whatever 
being wasted by shearing or floating on the back. The process 
of weaving, however, is much slower and the production of goods 
very much diminished. 

Swivel weaving is generally classed under the heading of an 
extra filling for figure. 



51 



CHAPTER SIX. 

WEKN-E.^ FOR FABRICS CONSTRUCTED WITH ONE 
WARP AND TWO FILLINGS. 

38. An Extra Filling for Weight. Weight is often added to 
a fabric by means of an extra filHng instead of an extra warp. 
Filhng, undergoing less strain during the weaving than the warp, 
can be of a softer and cheaper grade than would be required for 
warp purposes; a heavier texture can also be used filling ways 
than warp ways, as there is no chafing of consequence on the 
filling, nor is there as much tension on the filling as there is on 
the warp. 

From this it is seen that a saving can be made on the material 
by adding weight to a fabric by means of an extra filling instead 
of an extra warp. This how^ever is counterbalanced by the 
decreased production during the weaving. For instance, if we 
have a piece of single cloth which has eighty (80) picks per inch 
and we wish to add an extra filling to this, with an arrangement 
of one of face to one of back, in the entire cloth there would be 
80 + 80 — 160 picks per inch. Supposing this cloth is to be 
woven in a loom which makes eighty (SO) revolutions per minute 
(80 is used for the convenience of this illustration), it would 
require one minute to weave one inch of the single cloth and tw^o 
minutes to weave the same amount of cloth (one inch), when 
an extra filling is added to increase its weight, thus halving the 
production. 

In this class of goods the weaA'cs are the same as those used 
in connection with the principle of an extra warp for weight. 
The face filling weaves with the warp to form the face of the 
goods and the back filling weaves with the w^arp to form the back. 
From this it can be seen that the two fillings are distinguished 
as face filling and back filling. 

The back filling is stitched to the fabric by the lowering 
of an end under the back picks according to some weave, usually 
a satin or some other of this nature. The back pick should 
pass over an end at the point where the preceding and following 
face picks pass over the end; as the two face picks will cover the 
back pick completely, this method gives an invisible stitching. 
Where this stitch can not be obtained, the stitching should be 
done between a sinker and a raiser of the end with which the 

52 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 




back filling is to interlace, thus bringing the back pick over an 
end over which either the preceding or follow- 
ing face pick passes, covering to a certain 
extent the back pick. 

Fig. 90 illustrates one of these weaves; 
the face weave is the regular ^o twill; the 
back weave is the eight-harness satin, warp 
effect; the fillings are arranged one of face to 
one of back. 

39. An Extra Filling for Figure. The 

principle of two fillings and one warp, like 

that of two warps and one filling, is often 

used in the production of figured effects for 

ladies' dress goods, fanc}' vestings, etc. In 

this class the fillings are distinguished as 

ground and figure. The ground filling weaves ^^^^^ 

with the warp to form the ground, or body, and the figure filling 

weaves with the warp to produce the figure upon the face. 

The fillings can be arranged one of ground to one of figure, 
etc., over the entire fabric, or stripes of figure filling at certain 
intervals only may be used. At these stripes the fillings are 
arranged one of ground to one of figure, etc., or the ground 
filling can be omitted, especially in fabrics in which the figure 
filling forms stripes which completely cover the ground of the 
fabric. When the figure filling is to show on the face in order 
to form the figure, it is passed over the warp and either floated 
on the face of the goods, or (when the floats are too long) it is 
stitched down with a filling-effect satin weave. Where the 
figure filling is to be invisible, it is allowed to float on the back 
of the goods so that it can be sheared; or it is stitched to the body 
of the fabric with some loosely interlaced weave according to the 
extra filling for weight principle; i.e., with 
an invisible stitch. 

Figuring with an extra filling is largely 
done by means of the swivel lay which is 
explained under Chapter V., Section 37. 

When the figure is sheared off the 
back after the weaving, it is customary to 
give it an extra point of interlacing before 
and after its appearance on the face of the 
fabric. This keeps the figure picks from 
pulling out. Fig. 91 illustrates this princi- 
ple; the extra point of interlacing consists 
of a sinker and a raiser before the float, 
Figure 91 ^^^ ^ raiscr and a sinker after the 

53 






DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 



float. In Fig. 91 the regular -^ twill is used for the ground 
weave. This ground is figured by means of filling spots which are 
arranged according to the plain weave. 

40. Coin Spots. This is another form of effect produced 
by means of an extra filling for figure. These effects obtain 
their name from the shape of the spots, which are usually circular 
or coin-shaped. In the smaller effects they are known as 
" Dotted Swiss " and consist of round spots on a plain weave 
ground. The extra filling generally enters the same shed as the 
preceding or following plain weave pick; the shed for the figure 
pick being formed for the width of the spot onl3^ The figure 
picks float between the spots and are afterwards sheared off, 
thus causing considerable waste. 

This principle is commonly used 
in cotton goods, sometimes in wor- 
steds, and occasionally in cloakings. 

The original dotted swiss was 
woven in this manner but to-day it 
is produced by an embroidery machine 
which places the spots in the woven 
goods by means of needles; this causes 
no waste of yarn but requires a second 
handling of the goods. The embroid- 
ery machines are very costly, therefore 
they add an extra expense. These 
goods are also produced by means of 
the swivel loom. 

The first mentioned method of 
producing these goods enables the 
manufacturer to weave them on a one- 
shuttle loom which has but a small 
harness-capacity . 

Fig. 92 illustrates a coin spot 
which repeats on 24 ends and 32 
ground picks. Two spots occur in 
every repeat and are arranged according to the plain weave. 
Where the spots come, the fillings are arranged one figure, one 
ground, two figure, one ground, two figure, one ground, and one 
figure. This weave is laid out to weave face down. 

In these effects a soft material is usually used for the filUngs; 
when two kinds are used, the figure filling is generally C( arser 
than the ground. The fabrics are of an open nature and are 
used for ladies' dress goods, curtains, etc. 




MWm 




Figure 92 



41. Rib Fabrics Produced by Means of Two Fillings and One 

54 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

Warp. These may be of two classes. The first is known as the 
Longitudinal Rib Weave and the second as Diagonal Rib Weave. 

Longitudinal Rib Weaves, in cottons, are often confounded 
with " Piques." They also come under the heading of Bedford- 
Cords, and are made by having the filling interlace with a certain 
number of ends and then floating on the back for another series 
of ends. Two fillings are used for the construction of these goods, 
generally arranged one and one, or two and two. The fillings, 
both weaving on the face and back, are distinguished as the first 
and second picks, or as the first two picks and second two picks, 
etc. The first pick generally weaves with a certain number of 
ends, then floats on the back for a certain number of ends; the 
second pick floats on the back of the ends with which the first 
pick interlaced, then weaves with the ends under which the first 
pick floated, etc. 

Through the filling interweaving and floating on the back, 
alternately, for a certain number of ends, cords or welts running 
in the direction of the warp are formed. These cords are brought 
out stronger by the addition of a number of ends which weave in 
the centre of every cord; and these extra ends are at times of 
some fancy material and are used for figuring the cords besides 
bringing them out. At times they are woven in as stufler ends; 
i.e., they do not interlace with the filling but lie between the body 
of the fabric and the filling which floats on the back. 

Fig 93 illustrates one of these weaves known as the Bedford- 
Cord; it is made by having the 
first two picks interlace with the 
first eight ends according to the 
plain weave, then floating under 
the next eight; the next two 
picks weave opposite to the first Figure 93 

two; i.e., they float under the first eight ends, and weave with 
the next eight according to the plain weave. 

This class of weaves is also used in the manufacture of 
worsteds for trouserings and suitings. They are carried out in 
much the same manner as in cottons, a two-colored warp and 
fillings of different colors sometimes being used; or the fabric 
is woven in the grey and dyed in the piece. 

When using a two-colored warp, arranging the colors eight 
of black and eight of blue, a black pick is to alternate with one of 
blue at the same time, solid colored stripes, running in the direc- 
tion of the warp, can be produced by having the black pick weave 
with the black ends and floating under the blue ones and the blue 
pick float under the black ends and weave with the blue. Either 
the plain or a twill weave can be used wherever the warp inter- 

55 




DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

laces with the fihing, or a different weave, from that used for the 
black stripe, can be used for the blue, providing both weaves 
have about the same amount of take-up. 

These weaves may be figured by means of an extra warp as 
explained above, or they may be figured by having the filling 
float on the face of the fabric for a number of ends, thus producing 
spots which can be arranged according to some motive. 

Diagonal Rib Weaves are mostly employed in the production 
of worsted dress goods and worsted suitings. They are made in 
much the same manner as the longitudinal rib weaves; i.e., by 
having the filling weaving and floating alternately with sets of 
ends. In this case we desire to form rib lines, or cords running 
diagonally across the fabric. It is done by having every suc- 
cessive pick interlace with a set of ends which is one end farther 
to the right than the set of ends under which the preceding pick 
floated; i.e., if the first pick weaves with the first eight ends and 
floats under the next eight, the second pick will weave with the 
first end, float under the next eight, and weave with the next 
seven ends. 

To illustrate this still better Fig. 94 has been constructed. 
In this case the first pick weaves, according to the plain weave, 

for eight ends and floats un- 
der the next eight, etc.; 
i.e. the first pick weaves 
i_i_i_i„8 'p]^g second pick 

weaves with the first end, 
according to the plain weave, 
and floats under the next 
eight, then weaves with the 
next seven ends according 
to the plain weave, etc.; i.e.y 
the second pick weaves 
T-T^T-T-. The third pick floats 
under the first two ends, 
weaves plain weave with the 
next eight and floats under 
F'g^"'^^ the next six, etc.; i.e., the 

third pick weaves ^t^t-t-t^- The fourth pick weaves with the 
first three ends, floats under the next eight, and weaves with the 
next five ends according to the plain weave, etc. ; i.e., the fourth 
pick weaves J-y^T-r^T, etc. 

Diagonal rib weaves may also be figured by means of filling 
floats, thus forming spots which may be arranged according to 
some motive. In piece dyes, when a single yarn is used for the 
filling and a ply yarn for the warp, the single yam will appear 
bright, thus giving a very pretty effect. 

56 



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tifcJii«r^ 









OF WOVEN FABRICS 



By having the fiUing weave with sets of ends two or more 
ends further to the right than the set of ends under which the pre- 
ceding pick floated, diagonal rib-lines of a lower degree may be 
formed. When the rib-lines are to run from right to left every 
successive pick must interlace one or more ends further to the left. 

42. Figured Beavers. In this class of fabrics, hke the fore- 
going, two fillings are employed, both of which weave on the face 
and back of the goods. A cotton warp and woolen filling are 
used, the filling being of two colors, one producing the 
ground and the other the figure. After the weaving the goods 
are usually napped (gigged) very heavily in order to cover up the 
warp and soften the face of the fabric. These weaves are also 
extensively used in a class of fabrics known as Eider Down; in 
this case a cotton warp is also used, the filling being of a soft spun 
cotton or woolen yarn. The goods are napped on both sides. 

The - - broken twill, two to the right and two to the left, 
(the four-leaf clover, fiUing efi^ect), is used for the face weave and 




A Figure 95 

the ^^T broken twill, two to the right and two to the left (the four- 
leaf clover, warp-effect), is used for the back weave. Therefore 

57 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

wherever a pick is to be visible on the face the first weave is used, 
otherwise the latter is employed. 

These weaves are generally laid out according to a figure or 
motive, especially in eider-downs for bath-robes, which are often 
figured by means of the Jacquard machine. 

Fig. 95 illustrates a weave for a figured beaver, made accord- 
ing to motive A. The fillings are arranged one of red to one of 
black which are indicated on the left-hand side of the weave. 
Every pick in the motive calls for one pick red and one black in 
the weave. In order to make the back picks invisible, the raisers 
on the back picks must bear a certain relation to those on the face 
picks. This is done according to the same rule as in an extra 
filling for weight. 

The five-harness satin weave, filling and warp effect, the 
J^4 and iy straight and broken twills, and similar weaves of this 
nature, are also used for these goods. 



58 



CHAPTER SEVEN. 
DOUBLE CLOTHS. 

43. The Principle and Construction of Double Cloths. 

Double cloths consist of two independent fabrics, woven one on 
top of the other. These two fabrics may, or may not, be stitched 
together as the case may warrant. 

In order to weave two independent fabrics, one on top of the 
other, at the same time, two warps and two fillings are required, 





Figure 96 Figure 97 

one warp and one filling for each fabric. The warps are known 
as face and back, and the fillings also as face and back. The face 



E..«BB»:« Ig^g 



3 ■£■ 5 » 



^^ 



sr% ^t% .a-i ^p^ 






Figure 98 



■I Jr 









Figure 99 



warp weaves with the face filling to form the face (top) fabric, and 
the back warp weaves with the back filling to form the back 

59 



DESICxNING AND CONSTRUCTION 






4^¥ 




4 J: 


^ 5 - 5 T. = 


4 


r§ 


4?!^ 


1 ^r^ 


"1 




ru 



r- 



^HJi-f^ 



Figure 100 



(bottom) fabric. The stitching (combining) of these two 
fabrics can be done by either having the back warp or filhng 
interweave with the face fabric, or by having the face warp or 
fining interweave with the back. 

When planning these weaves on point paper it is customary 
to treat the face threads separately from those on the back, one 

after the other. 
The proportion 
of face to back 
threads can be 
one of face to 
oneofback,two 
of face to one 
of back, two of 
face to two of 
back, three of 
face to one of 
back, etc. ; or 
the propor- 
tions of tlie 

fillings can be different from that of the warps; i.e., the warps 
can be arranged one of face to one of back and the fillings two 
of face to one of back, etc. 

Figs. 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, and 101 illustrate the different rules 
followed in the construc- 
tion of double cloth 
weaves on point paper. 
In this case the warps 
and fillings are arranged 
two of face to one of 
back ; the -o twill is 
used for the face weave 
(see Fig. 100, A), and 
the plain weave is used 
for the back (see Fig. 
100, B). The laying Figure loi 

out should be done according to the following rules. 

Rule 1. Indicate the back ends and picks (see Fig. 90). 
When the arrangement of warps and fillings is two of face to one 
of back, it is customary to start the weave with one of face. 

Rule 2. Place the face weave on the face ends and picks, 
skipping the back threads as if thev were not in the weave (see 
Fig. 97). 

Rule 3. Place the back weave on the back ends and picks, 

60 




OF WOVEN FABRICS 

skipping the face threads as if they were not in the weave (see Fig. 
98). 

Rule 4. Raise the face ends over the back picks (see Fig. 
99). 

Rule 5. Stitch the two fabrics together (see Fig. 100). 

In this case the two fabrics have been stitched by the raising 
of the back ends over face picks in an eight-harness satin order, 
three as the counter. When stitching these weaves care must be 
taken to form an invisible stitch; i.e., the same rules must be 
observed as in chapters five and six, sections 36 and 38, respec- 
tively. When a back end is raised over a face pick it should be 
done between two raisers of the face weave and next to a raiser 
of the back weave. When the stitching is done by lowering a 
face end under a back pick, it should be done between two sinkers 
of the face weave and next to a sinker of the back (see Fig. 101). 
Fig. 100, C illustrates the eight-harness satin used in the stitch- 
ing of the fabrics in Fig. 100. Fig. 101, A illustrates the eight- 
harness satin used in the stitching of Fig. 101. 

When it is impossible to stitch a double cloth in the manner 
described above, the following method should be tised. Stitch 
by raising the back ends over face picks between a raiser and a 
sinker of the face weave and next to a raiser of the back weave. 
Or, stitch by lowering the face ends under back picks between a 
sinker and raiser of the face weave and next to a sinker of the 
back. A back end should never be raised over a face pick 
between two sinkers of the face weave, nor should a face end be 
lowered under a back pick between two raisers of the face weave 
for stitchings of this sort will interfere with the face of the fabric. 

In order to keep the back filling from passing over the face 
warp, the face warp (ends) is raised over the back filling (picks) 
(see rule 4), thus keeping the two fabrics separate. As the back 
warp is originally down (on point paper) when the face filling 
crosses, it need not be lowered, hence no rule for this. 

A double cloth weave generally has one, two, or more face 
threads to every back thread; excepting, however, the case where 
the arrangement of warps and fillings is two of face to two of 
back, in which case there are two face ends and picks to every 
two back ends and picks. Therefore for every back thread there 
are required one, two, or more face threads in one repeat of a 
double cloth weave, hence a double cloth weave will repeat on the 
number of ends and picks equalling the number of ends and picks 
of the face weave plus the number of ends and picks of the back 
weave. For example, calculate the number of ends and picks 
required for one repeat of the double cloth weave under Figs. 96 
to 101 inclusive. In this case the face weave is the ^^ twill 
which repeats on four ends and picks; the back weaves accord- 

61 



DESIGXIXG AND COXSTRUCTIOX 

ing to the plain weave which repeats on two ends and picks; for 
the stitching the eight-harness satin is used which repeats on eight 
ends and picks. The stitching, being done by raising the back 
ends over face picks, requires at least eight back ends and the 
double number of face picks (in the arrangement of two of face to 
one of back every other face pick, or every other face end, is used 
for the stitching) , or sixteen face picks. For every back end there 
are two of face in this weave, hence in the w^hole weave we have 
8 X 2 -|- 8, or 24 ends per repeat. For every two face picks there 
is one of back, hence in the whole weave we have 8x2 + 8, or 
24 picks per repeat. The number of face ends required in one 
repeat of the whole weave must be a multiple of the number of 
ends for one repeat of the face weave; in accordance with the 
back weave and stitching, sixteen face threads are required in one 
repeat of the double cloth w^eave; sixteen is a multiple of four, 
therefore sixteen face ends and picks will complete this weave. 
The same must be the case in regard to the back weave. 

If the number of ends and picks required in one repeat, of 
either face or back, of the double cloth weave is not a multiple of 
the number on which the respective weaves repeat, then the 
weave must be enlarged until the number of ends and picks (both 
of face and back) used, is a multiple of the number of ends on 
which the respective weaves repeat. 

Double cloth weaves are generally drawn in on the double- 
draw^ principle; the front set of harness-frames is used for the face 
warp and the rear set for the back warp. In some of the mills a 
straight draw is used for these weaves, although it is not as prac- 
tical as the double one. 

Double cloths are used in the construction of fabrics of a 
heavy nature, as backing for worsted suiting, double-faced fabrics 
such as cloakings, etc. In the case of backing for extra weight a 
cheaper and coarser material can be used than would be practical 
by backing with an extra filling or warp. 

When constructing these weaves the back w^arp and filling 
should always be regulated according to the face warp and filling; 
i.e., when the warps and fillings are arranged one of face to one of 
back, the back warp and filling should never be heavier than the 
face warp and filling; when the warps and fillings are arranged 
two of face to one of back, then the back warp and filling can be 
of a heavier (coarser) yam than that used for the face, etc. 
When using a one and one arrangement, the back warp should 
not have a tighter interlacing than the face. If this should be 
the case, the back warp would not take the picks as the texture 
is usually calculated to suit the face cloth. 

62 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

Fig. 102 illustrates another double cloth weave. In this 
case a ^o entwining twill is used, which has two twill lines, for 
the face weave. The plain weave is used for the back; the stitch- 





^ 4y-#-i -pT 



Figure 102 



^ 




ing is done by raising the back warp over the face filling in an 
eight-harness satin order. The warps and fillings are arranged 
two of face to one of back. 

44. Double Plain Weaves. This is a variety of the regular 
double cloths, carried out in exactly the same manner as the reg- 
ular double cloth weaves using the plain weave for both face and 
back, with an arrangement of one of face to one of back. 

They are used in the production of solid colored stripe and 
check effects for cotton 
table-spreads, bed-spreads, 
woolen trouserings, suit- 
ings, etc. A two-colored 
warp and filling is gener- 
ally employed, such as one 
of black to one of blue, 
etc., in warp and filling. 
The black warp weaves 
with the black filling to 
form the face of the goods, 
and the blue warp weaves 
with the blue filling to 
form the back. This ar- 
rangement produces a 
double-faced fabric. 

If we desire to make 
a fabric which has solid Figure 103 

colored stripes, running 
lengthwise in the goods, the black warp would weave with 

63 






DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 



the black filling to form the face of the fabric, for the desired 
width of the stripe, and the blue warp w^ould weave with the blue 
filling to form the back of the fabric for the same width, after 
which the order would be reversed; i.e., the blue warp and filling 
would weave on the face and the black warp and filling on the 
back. 

Fig. 103, A represents a stripe effect which is to be produced 
by means of the double-plain weave. This motive calls for a 
stripe of black for six face ends, a stripe of red for four face ends, 
one of black for two, and one of red for four ends. Fig. 103 
illustrates the weave which will produce this effect. 

This class of fabrics is not stitched, unless the different 
stripes are very wide. The fabrics receive sufficient stitching 
through the changing of the face warp and filling to the back, 
and vice versa. 



^^^^R!^^9$ 




WTvTA 



j!L^ 



!:t±t±ttn-rt: 



Figure 104 

Fig. 104, A is the motive for a checked double-plain; every 
block in the motive calls for two face ends and two face picks in 
the weave. Fig. 104 is the weave which will produce the effect 
required by this motive. Fig. 104, B and C respectively illus- 
trate the drawing-in and chain drafts for this weave. 

Double-plain weaves are also used in the production of 
fabrics known as " Double-Plain Plaids." They are generally 
made of two, three, or more colors; the goods are used for vest- 

64 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

ings, cloakings, etc. In this class of fabrics it is the object to 
produce a ground of sohd color, or colors, and to figure this 
ground with various colored stripes and blocks which may, or 
may not, be of solid color. 

Fig. 105 illustrates the motive for one of these weaves, i.e., 
it represents the face of the fabric. In this case the face warp 
and filling are arranged twelve black, four blue, eight black, four 
red, and eight green. The back warp and filling are arranged 




D 




■J%li 


i^j 


Kf- 


4^ 


r^^jdl 


s 





I J >-1 -l 



B A Figure 105 6 2 4 2 4 

twelve blue, four green, eight blue, four black, and eight blue. 
Fig. 105, A is the arrangement of the face warp and filling colors, 
B is the arrangement of the back warp and filling colors, C is the 
drawing-in draft, and D the chain draft for this weave. The 
weave is not reproduced here as the student can carry it out from 
the drawing-in and chain drafts given. 

In Fig. 105 it can readily be seen where the back warp and 
fining changes off with the face warp and filling in order to pro- 
duce solid colored stripes and blocks. The sohd colored stripes of 
blue, warp and filling ways, are obtained by having the back fin- 
ing weave with the face warp where the stripe runs in the direc- 
tion of the warp, and the face filling weave with the back warp 
where the stripe runs in the direction of the filling. The solid 
colored block of green is obtained by bringing the back warp and 
filling on the face of the fabric, having it change place with the 

05 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

face warp and filling. This weave may be stitched, but the 
stitching is omitted in the chain draft. 



45. Tricot Weaves. These are another form of double- 
plain weave and have a slightly ribbed appearance. Tricots are 
used for the production of dress goods, suitings, full-dress fabrics, 
and coatings. In dress goods, dress fabrics, and coatings, they 
are generally piece-dyed, but in suitings, and sometimes in coat- 
ings, they are woven with colored (mixed) yarns. 

Two kinds of tricot weaves may be distinguished: the first, 
which forms rib lines running across the fabric, and the second, 
which forms rib lines running lengthwise of the fabric. The first 
is known simply as the " Tricot." and the second as the " Tricot- 
Long." Both give a very elastic, soft piece of goods. In the 
very heavy grades, especially tricot-longs, an extra filling or an 
extra warp for weight is added. 

Tricots are made by having the face warp change places with 
the back warp at certain intervals, a rib (groove) being formed in 
the goods by this change. The change of the warps may occur 
after every four, six, or more picks. 

Tricot-longs are made by having the face filhng change 
places with the back filling at certain intervals, a rib (groove) 
being formed in the goods by this change. The change of the 
fillings may occur after every four, six, or more ends. 

Fig. 106 illustrates a tricot weave, the face warp changing 

place with the back warp after 
every four picks; i.e., the first four 
picks weave double-plain with the 
warps arranged one of face to one 
of back, the next four picks 
weave double-plain with the warps 
arranged one of back to one of 
face. The fillings are arranged one 
of face to one of back throughout. 
Fig. 107 illustrates a tricot- 
long weave, the face filling chang- 
ing place with the back filling 
after every six ends; i.e., the first 
six ends weave double-plain with 
the fillings arranged one of face 
to one of back, the next six ends 
weave double-plain with the 
fillings arranged one of back 
to one of face. The warps are 
Figure 107 arranged one of face to one of back 

throughout. In both of these weaves one repeat is designated by A. 

66 



msi 



^S&i 




OF WOVEN FABRICS 



46. Combination of Single and Double Plains. In the man- 
ufacture of certain classes of dress goods a combination of single- 
plain and double-plain weaves is used, especially in colored 
goods, thus producing a two-colored ground and figures of solid 
colors; either one or both colors may be used for the figure. 

They are carried out in worsteds, woolens, and cottons. 
Fig. 108 illustrates an el- 



ementary form of these 
combinations. The colors, 
in warp and filling, are ar- 
ranged two of red and two 
of black; the first sixteen 
ends and picks interlace 
according to the plain 
weave, thus forming a 
block of star-like effect; 
like that in color effect 
Fig. 16. The first sixteen 
picks and the second six- 
teen ends weave double- 
plain, warps and fillings 
arranged two of face to 
two of back, thus forming 
solid colored blocks of red 
on the face of the goods 



S4TR 



±ti± 



»4P#4P,.., ...... 






• as. 



Figure 108 

The first sixteen ends and second six- 
teen picks weave double-plain, the warps and fillings being 
arranged two of back to two of face, thus forming a solid colored 
block of black on the face of the goods. The second sixteen ends 
and picks interlace according to the plain weave and form the 
same effect as the first sixteen ends and picks. 

Some very pretty effects can be obtained in this manner, 
especially when the weaves are used as called for by a motive. 
These effects are generally kept down to the capacity of the 
harness loom, although at times they are woven on the Jacquard 
looms. 



47. Matelasse Weaves. This is another form of double 
cloth weaves, made according to the regular double cloths, the 
-T twill being used for the face weave and the plain weave for 
the back; the warps and fillings are arranged two of face to one of 
back. In the construction of the regular matelasses the face 
weave is usually a broken twill, a combination of -2 twill and 2 
and 2 basket, a figured broken twill, or any '--o arrangement of 
raisers and sinkers with lines of clear breaks. In figured mate- 
lasses the -2 twill is used for the face weave throughout. 

The matelasse effect is imparted to the fabric by means of 

67 



DESIGXIXG AND COXSTRUCTIOX 



Jtl-iJrmwlilt.ll:* 






mU i ^ 



t HB V^.Am ^' aL ^ bSS ^-hE 'fA-Am .^mH'^ pSi, 



the stitching. They have a quilted appearance which at times is 

brought out 
'""'"''' ' '^ ' ' ' " ' ^"" ' ' *"" ' "^ ' ' '^ stronger by 

the addition 
of an extra 
fining woven 
in between 
the face and 
back cloths. 

These goods 
are made in 
silk face and 
cotton backs, 
silk face and 
wool or wor- 
sted back ; 
when woven 
in either of 
these two 
combinations 
they are 
mostly used 
for dress 
goods. They 
are also made 
etc., in which 



1 "Fi -PI -Fl ^Vtt !"t- ffra 
*S Jari jffi Jtri Jlt'^r&l^ Hi. rsr 



back. 



Figvire 109 

with worsted face and wool or worsted 
case they are used for overcoatings, etc. 

The stitching, in regular matelasse weaves, is confined to 
one face end on each side of 
the break lines, although 
some of these ends may be 
omitted if the break lines are 
too close together. The 
stitching is done by the lower- 
ing of these ends under the 
back picks between two sink- 
ers, or between a raiser and a 
sinker of the face weave, and 
next to a sinker of the back. 
This stitching will tie down 
the face at the break lines, 
thus bringing them up dis- 
tinctly. 

When break lines occur 
both warp and filling ways 
in the face weave, as for instance, when a figured broken twill 

68 




Figure 109 A 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

is used, then the stitching, in addition to the method described 
above, is done by the raising of the back ends over the face 
picks preceding and following the break lines, between two 
raisers of the face weave and next to a raiser of the back. 

Fig. 109 illustrates a matelasse weave carried out accord- 
ing to the above method. Fig. 109, ^4 illustrates the weave used 
for the face. 

Figured matelasses, usually used for overcoatings, etc., 
are stitched b}^ raising the back ends over the face 
pick preceding and over the face pick following the back 
pick. In this case the stitching is done according to some 
motive. They are woven on both the harness and Jacquard 
loom. When woven on a harness loom the motive is confined 
to some geometrical figure, ever}^ block in the motive repre- 
senting one back end and one back pick. 




A Figure 110 

Fig. 110 illustrates a figured matelasse, stitched according 
to motive Fig. 110, A. 



48. Pique Weaves. These weaves are made of two warps 
and one, two, or three fillings. The warps are termed face and 
back, and the fillings are termed face, stuff er, and back. These 
goods have ribs, or welts, running across the fabric. On this 

G9 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 



account they are often confounded with longitudinal rib weaves 
which have rib-lines running lengthwise in the fabric. The warps 
are generally arranged two of face to one of back. The back 
warp weaves with the back filling, if there is any; otherwise the 
back warp floats on the back, excepting where all the back warp 
is raised over one or more face picks, which forms the depressions 
between the ribs. The picks over which all the back warp is 
raised are known as the " Binder." This effect may be increased 
by keeping the back warp very tight, and the face warp some- 
what loose, during the weaving. In order to enable the ribs to 
withstand pressing, a stuffer filling is introduced. This stuffer 
filling enters the goods when all the face warp is raised and all 
the back warp lowered. This naturally increases the weight of 
the goods but this can be overcome by omitting the back filling. 
Pique weaves can be varied only by different 
widths of the ribs. The plain weave is used, in 
all of them, for the face weave, and if there is a 
back filling, the plain weave is also used for the 
back. They are used for dress goods, vestings, 
neckties, etc. 

Fig. Ill illustrates a pique weave in which 
the fillings are arranged two face, one back, one 
face, one stuffer, one face, one back, two face, 
one back, one face, one stuffer, one face, one 
back, two face, and two binders. The warps are 
arranged two of face to one of back. 

Pique w^eaves may be figured by floating 
the face warp over two or more ribs, thus form- 
ing spots of warp floats. These spots can then 
be arranged according to some motive. They 
are used for the same classes of fabrics as the 
Figure 111 regular piques. 




49. Marseilles Weaves. The weaves used for the face and 
back of these fabrics are the same as used for piques. In the 
stitching, marseilles weaves resemble the figured matelasses. 
They are generally made with cotton face and back and are used 
for bed-quilts, and other heavy fabrics of this nature. They are 
woven on either the harness or Jacquard loom, depending upon 
the pattern required for the stitching. The stitching, as in 
matelasses, produces a quilted eft'ect. 



50. Crepons. These are another variety of double cloths 
in which the figuring is done by means of the stitching. In this 
case two warps and two fillings are generally used, although at 
times two warps and one filling are employed. 

70 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

When making this class of goods on the double cloth prin- 
ciple it is customary to use a light texture, and to combine two 
materials, one of which is shrinkable and the other non-shrink- 
able. The stitching, of the two fabrics, is done according to some 
motive, the raisers in the motive indicating the points of stitch- 
ing at which points (through the stitching) depressions (low or 
tight places) are formed in the goods. In the unstitched places 
we find the elevated or loose parts, which give the crepon effect. 
They are made in combinations of worsted and cotton, worsted 
and silk, and, at times, silk and cotton. The face warp is gen- 
erally kept loose during the weaving and the back warp tight; 
the goods are mostly piece-dyed. The arrangements of warps 
and fillings are usually two of face to one of back, or one of face 
to one of back for the warps, and two of face to one of back for 
the fillings, etc. | 

Fig. 112 illustrates a crepon weave, which is stitched accord- 
ing to motive Fig. 112, A. In this case the warps are arranged 






Figure 112 

one of face to one of back, and the fillings two of face to one of 
back. Fig. 112, B represents the enlargement of motive; every 
block in the motive (Fig. 112, .4) represents four ends and two 
picks in the enlarged motive (Fig. 112, B). The spots in the 

71 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

enlarged view show where the back warp is to be raised over the 
face fining. Every block in the enlarged motive calls for one 
back end and one face pick; and every painted block in the small 
motive calls for four ends and two picks of plain weave in the 
enlarged one. 

51. Weaves for Beavers, Kerseys, and Meltons. These goods 
are generally termed " Face Finished." All three may be woven 
alike, although a looser weave is generally employed for the 
beaver than for the kersey, and a looser weave is employed for 
the kersey than for the melton; the distinction between these 
goods being brought out in the finishing. 

In their lightest weights, woven in a single cloth, they are 
made in various grades and are used as dress goods; in a little 
heavier grade, for suitings and full-dress fabrics; and in a heavy 
grade, woven on the double cloth principle, for overcoating. 

In the production of beavers a twill weave is generally 
employed, although satins are sometimes used (mostly double 
satins) for the face weave; in the production of kerseys, a twill 
of a tighter nature than that used in the production of beavers 
is used for the face weave; for the face weaves for meltons, either 
a closely interlaced twill or the plain weave is used. All three 
classes of goods are woven in the grey, fulled to the extent of 
felting, and piece-dyed. 

As stated above, the same weave can be used in the pro- 
duction of any of these three fabrics, the difference being in the 
finishing. Beavers, as a rule, are not felted as heavily as the 
other two fabrics, but are napped extensively and sheared less; 
thus producing a nice, soft-feeling piece of goods with a rather 
long nap. 

Kerseys are felted to a greater extent than beavers, they are 
napped well and sheared somewhat closer. The extra amount 
of felting they receive imparts a closer feeling to the goods. Both 
beavers and kerseys will give a smooth feel when rubbed down- 
ward; i.e., when rubbed in the direction of the warp, from 
the top to the bottom. If rubbed in the opposite direction, i.e. 
from the bottom to the top (in the direction of the warp), they 
will feel rough. This is due to the fact that beavers and kerseys 
are sheared but once; i.e. they are run through the shears in one 
direction only; therefore when rubbing the goods with the nap 
(in the direction of the nap), they will feel smooth, but when rub- 
bing in the opposite direction, or against the nap, they will have 
a harsh, rough feeling. 

Of these three fabrics, meltons undergo the heaviest felting 
and the closest shearing; in fact, they are sheared in both direc- 
tions, thus giving a short but very heavy nap, which will feel 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 



smooth when rubbed in either direction of the warp. This is due 

to the fact that the fibres stand upright on the face of the goods 

produced by the double shearing, i.e. 

the shearing they receive in both 

directions. This double shearing, 

combined w4th an extra amount of 

brushing, also imparts an extra high 

and lustrous finish to the face of the 

goods. In all three of these fabrics, 

one of the main objects is to conceal 

all appearances of the weave and 

threads. 

Fig. 113 illustrates a weave which 
is best adapted for beavers. Figs. 
113, .4, B, and C represent respec- 
tively the face weave, back weave, 
and stitching. In this case the 
warps and fillings are arranged one 
of face to one of back. 

Fig. 114 illustrates a w^eave 
which is adaptable for both kerseys 
and meltons. Figs. 114, A, B, and 
C represent the face weave, back weave, and the stitching, 
respectively. In this case the warps and fillings are arranged 
one of face to one of back. 




Figure 114 



52. Chinchillas (Flackone). Although this style of goods 
is generally classed under pile fabrics, and indeed is a sort of a 
filling-pile cloth, it will be considered among the double cloths, 
though as many as four fillings can be tised in their construction. 

One or two warps and two, three, or four fillings may be used 
in the making of chinchillas. The warps are termed face and 
back; and the fillings are termed pile, ground, stuffer, and back. 
The pile filling weaves (interlaces) with the face warp to form the 
face of the fabric; the ground filling weaves with the face warp to 
form the ground or body; the stuff er filling lies between the face 
and back warps; and the back filling weaves with the back warp 
to form the back of the fabric. 

These goods are generally used for overcoatings, and in their 
construction little stress is placed upon the closeness and strength 
of the fabric; instead, a woolly face of a soft, spongy nature is to 
be produced. Therefore the goods are set in the loom compara- 
tively narrow, with light-textured w^arps so that they will readily 
take a high number of picks, the filling being of more consequence 
than the warps, as the latter need not show on either face or back 
of the fabric. The cheaper grades of these fabrics are made w4th 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 



pile and back fillings only, but in better grades at least three fill- 
ings are used: pile, ground, and back. 

In order to impart a soft, woolly face to the goods, the pile 
filling (that- forming the face of the goods) must necessarily be 
of a fine, short-stapled stock. This filling is wound single, double, 
three, four, or five-fold on the bobbin. A double (two-fold) 
reeled (wound) yarn is ordinarily used. 

For the interlacing of the pile filling a weave of long filling 
floats is generally employed; one of a tight nature for the ground 
and back fillings, the same weave being used for both, i.e., weaves 
which have the same amount of interlacings. 

The pile filling is torn up during the gigging (napping) of the 
finishing process, the picks being torn in the middle of the long 
floats. A double pile pick 
presents a better surface for 
this tearing, hence it is prefer- 
able to a single pile pick. 
This tearing of the pile filling 
forms tufts or lumps on the face 
of the fabric which are raised 
still more by a so called whip- 
ping or beating machine; these 
tufts are then put into a more 
compact 

form by the ' --iwi ; _ml' 
chin c h i 1 1 a -^^ "^^^ 

machine , hb . 
which has a _^>^ 
rubbing mo- ^-- 
tion, thus :7 J 
forming '.''^^^ 
compact 
lumps on 

the face of the goods. The shearing is done before they are 
run through the chinchilla machine, so that all the lumps will 
be of the same height when the fabric is finished. 

The interlacing used for the pile filling regulates the rotation 
of these lumps on the face of the goods. If we wish to have these 
lumps form stripes, a filling rib weave would be the proper inter- 
lacing to use; if the lumps are to come in a twill order, i.e., run 
diagonally across the goods, a twill weave with a broad filling 
line would be the right interlacing. At times the lumps are 
scattered in a satin order; in such cases a double-satin is the most 
likely weave to use. It must always be remembered that the pile 
filling must be sufficiently interlaced with the face warp, so that the 
broken bits of filling will not pull out during the rubbing process. 

74 




OF WOVEN FABRICS 

Chinchillas in their plainer forms are generally termed 
" Whitneys," and in their more elaborate forms, " Flackones." 

When planning patterns for this class of goods, it is best first 
to make a motive of the rotation in which the lumps are to come 
on the face of the goods. 

Fig. 115 illustrates a complete weave for a chinchilla. Fig. 
115, A is the interlacing used for the pile filling; B is the inter- 
lacing used for the ground; and C is the back weave. The stitch- 
ing is illustrated by D. In this case two warps and three fillings 
are used; the warps are arranged two of face to one of back; and 
the fillings two pile, two back, and one ground. 



75 



CHAPTER EIGHT. 



SINGLE AND DOUBLE CLOTH WEAVES FOR 
FABRICS OF A SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION. 

53. Through-and-Through Weaves. It is not always 
advisable to increase the weight of a fabric by means of either an 
extra warp or an extra filling, or both, because in certain kinds 
these back threads would interfere with the face of the goods. 
This is especially the case in medium -weight fabrics for summer 
wear, in which the stitching of an extra. warp or an extra filling 
interferes with the face of the goods, and a double cloth would 
make it too bulky and heavy. It also happens that some looms 
have but one beam-stand, therefore goods which are backed by 
an extra warp can not be woven on them, unless the back warp 
has about the same amount of take-up as the face. 

In order to increase the weight of fabrics without adding an 
extra warp or filling, weaves have been constructed which cause 
either the ends or picks (or sometimes both) to weave both on the 
face and back of the goods. This arrangement will allow a 
higher texture to be used, thereby increasing the weight without 
adding another series of threads to the fabric. When planning 
these weaves care must be taken not to spoil the effect which 
would be produced by the weave in use, if carried out strictly 
according to the single-cloth principle. 

Figs. 116, A, B, C, and D illustrate the construction of one 

of these through-and- 
through weaves made 
from the regular -2 
twill. A illustrates 
this twill placed on 
ever}^ other end, two 
repeats each way, thus 
making it on sixteen 
ends and eight picks. 
In this illustration two 
twill-lines are running 
from left to right, 
^ omitting every other 

Figure 116 ^^d; if the upper twill 

line is taken from the 
odd numbered ends and placed on the even ones, all of the ends 

76 



m 


j^ 


A 




imi 

1*^ 





OF WOVEN FABRICS 

will have the same amount of interlacing. This is illustrated by 
B. The first end then weaves ^e, and the second 4^2, the 
third T-^, and the fourth tt-t, etc. Upon examining B care- 
fully it is seen that the distances between the two twill-lines varv; 
i.e., there is but one sinker between the top of the first twill-line 
and the bottom of the second, but there are two sinkers between 
the top of the second twill-line and the bottom of the first. This 
can readily be overcome by either moving the raisers of the sec- 
ond twill-line up for one pick, adding another pick to the top of 
the weave, making the repeat nine picks high; or by cutting off 
the top pick, making the weave repeat on seven picks. Of course 
the weave must be altered to suit these changes. C and D illus- 
trate these methods of changing the twill-lines so that they come 
at even intervals. C repeats on nine ends and picks, due to the 
addition of an extra pick and the changing of the weave in accord- 
ance with this rule. D repeats on seven ends and picks, due to 
the cutting off of the top pick and the changing of the v/eave. 

This class of weaves can be carried out with all the founda- 
tion weaves. Nearly all of those derived from the regular twills 
are suitable in the construction of the through-and-throughs. 
If C and D of Fig. 116 are carefully examined, it will be readily 
seen that they resemble corkscrew weaves to a certain extent. 
In them both the warp and filling are on the face of the goods, but 
the filling is not always visible on the back. 

If it is desired to have the filling weave both on the face and 
on the back of a fabric, the method is much the same as illus- 
trated by Fig. 116. In this instance, the weave is placed on ever\^ 
other pick, instead of every other end, the sinkers being indicated 
on the different picks, and all the remainder of the picks which 
are not reserved for sinkers, pass underneath the warp; i.e., 
raisers are painted on them. 

The class of weaves illustrated by Fig. 116 is known as 
through-and-through, with an arrangement of one and one. 
They can also be arranged two and one, three and one, etc., as 
well as one and one. This is done by placing the original weave 
on two threads and skipping one, in the case of an arrangement 
of two and one. When the arrangement is three and one, the 
weave is placed on three threads and skipping one, etc. In this 
manner all kinds of arrangements can be used. 

Stuffer fillings may be added to the fabric made with these 
weaves without interfering with the face of the goods. This, 
however, is not often practiced. At times an extra warp is added 
thus producing practically a double cloth with two warps and but 
one filling. 

54. Bracket Weaves. These weaves could be classed with 

77 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 




those described above, although they differ in their construction. 
They are made of two warps and one fihing, two warps and two 
finings, and at times even an extra fiUing is added. 

The most common bracket weaves will here be described. 
They are made with two warps and one filling; the warps being 
known as the inside and outside, or bracket 
warps, and both w^eave with the filling. The 
inside warp weaves according to some closely 
interlaced weave, generally the plain, and 
the outside warp interlaces according to some 
very loose weave, a basket or loose twill 
being mostly used. 

Fig. 117 illustrates one of these. The 

warps are arranged one of outside and one 

of inside. The inside warp weaves plain, and 

^^"^^ the outside (bracket warp) according to the 

eight and four basket. 

These, like the through-and-through weaves, may also be 
arranged two and one. When made with two warps and two 
fillings the weave to form the bracket is placed on every other 
end and pick, but (the same as the face weave for double cloths) 
the bracket warp, when weaving on the face, must be raised over 
the inside picks. The bracket, or outside filling, weaves on the 
face when the bracket warp weaves on the back, and vice versa. 
When this filling weaves on the back, all the inside warp must be 
raised over it. The plain weave is generally used for the inter- 
lacing of the inside warp and filling. A cheaper material can be 
used for these, as they (the inside warp and filling) are entirely 
covered by the bracket. 

By having the inside warp and filling change places with the 
bracket, warp and filling figured effects can be produced; if a dif- 
ferent color is used for every set of ends, a four-colored face 
results. 



55. Weaves for Towelings. Special weaves are generally 
used in the manufacture of towels, as they require a very rough 
surface; the fabric, at the same time, must stand extreme w^ear. 
Two classes of towels are ordinarilv used in this countrv, the 
" Huck Towels," and the ''Turkish Towels." Huck 
towels are made in single cloths, a peculiar weave, 
resembling the granites, being used. Fig. 118 illus- 
trates this interlacing. It repeats on ten ends and 
eight picks, and can be woA'en on five harness- 
FiRure 118 framcs. 

Turkish towels are generally classed with the pile weaves. 
They are made with two warps and one filling. The eft'ect is pro- 




OF WOVEN FABRICS 

duced by the method employed in the weaving. The method of 
weaving this class of towelings will be described as well as pos- 
sible, without using an illustration. 

Two warps are used each of which is on a separate beam. 
The ends of both warps weave side by side according to the plain 
weave. A movable reed is used, so arranged that it can be 
moved backward and forward. The first number of picks, 
usually three or four, is woven with the reed at its back position; 
i.e., as near to the harness-frames as possible. After these picks 
have been interlaced with the warps, the reed moves forward for 
the next pick, as far, or near to the cloth, as it will go; at the same 
time all the weight (tension) is taken off of one of the warp beams. 
The reed then travelling farther to the front, or nearer to the 
cloth, will take along the ends from the slackened beam, thus 
making them bulge out on the face and back of the goods. 

This beam is usually placed on top of the other in the rear 
of the loom. The warps are generally arranged two of face 
(pile warp) to one of ground. The higher the texture of the 
warps, the bulkier will be the towels, at the same time increasing 
the cost. 

56. Imitation Gauze. Gauze is an open, transparent fabric 
in which the ends twist around each other, thus forming openings 
or perforations. 

In imitating these weaves, the first aim is to produce an 
open and perforated fabric, in which certain sets of ends cling to 
one another. This, in the imitation, is done by grouping the ends 
in sets of three, four, five, etc.; these ends, in the different groups, 
cling together without being twisted around one another. 

Imitation gauze is not as stable a fabric as the regular, nor 
is it very often used entirely in a piece of goods, being, rather, in 
combination w^ith the plain w^eave, forming stripes and checks of 
gauze effect on a plain weave ground. 

Fig. 119 illustrates one of these weaves known as the six-end 
imitation gauze. It is made by having the first and third ends 
weave ^y, the fourth and sixth ends weave 
yJ^, the second end weave 3^, and the fifth 
^3. The first three ends are reeded into 
one dent, and the next three into another, 
three ends thus forming a set. Upon examin- 
ing this weave it will be noticed that two 
ends in every dent weave alike. This causes Figure 119 

them to cling together; the third end, weaving much looser 
than the others, needs no additional space in the reed, thus 
increasing the height of the group without adding to its width. 

79 





mwm ■■■ 


^ ■ ■ i ■ ■ 



DESIGXIXG AND CONSTRUCTION 




This principle is found in all of the imitation gauze weaves al- 
though applied in different forms. 

Fig. 120 illustrates another of these 
weaves. In this case it repeats on eight 
ends and picks, the ends being divided 
into groups of four. The first and fourth 
ends weave t-t-2-; the second and third ^^i 
the fifth and eighth J^a-T-yi and the sixth 
and seventh j^. 

Figure 120 

57. Honeycomb Weaves. This class 
of weaves produces hollow or depressed squares in the goods. 
Two classes are generally distinguished: first, honeycomb 
weaves; and second, honeycomb effects. The regular honeycomb 
weaves consist of squares the centres of which are plain weave 
gradually changing to a looser interlacing until it comes to the 
sides, which are either warp or filling floats. 

Where the corners of the four adjoining squares meet on one 
side of the goods, the centre of the square 
is formed on the other side. Fabrics 
woven with these weaves are reversible, 
the centre of the square on one side coming 
next to the corner of a square on the 
other side. 

Fig. 121 illustrates 

a regular hone3'Comb 

weave which repeats 

on eight ends and 

eight picks. 

These weaves are principally used for 

bed-spreads, but are sometimes found in 

dress goods, cloakings and neckties. 

Fig. 122 illustrates a honeycomb effect 
which repeats on sixteen ends and sixteen 
picks. Upon examination this weave will 
explain itself. Various other weaves of this description can be 
made repeating on a larger number of threads. 



■ ■■■ I ■ 



W.-.W.- 



.'J.\ .M.-. 



Figure 121 



■n 



U: 



di'^lb.^ 



i 



Figure 122 



58. Gauze (Leno or Doup Weaves). Gauze fabrics differ 
from all other woven fabrics by having the ends interlace, not 
only with the fihing, but also with one another. The texture of 
these fabrics being generally very light, gives a transparent nature 
to them, due to the mode of interlacing. Having the warp 
threads practically interlace with each other makes the fabrics 
extraordinarily durable and strong. 

All gauze effects are made by means of the warp, the fihing 

80 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 




Figure 123 



being only of secondar}^ consideration in their designing and pro- 
duction. This is true, even when it is used in the figuring, by 
being forced out of its regular horizontal position, forming diag- 
onal lines in the goods. The 
ground for these weaves is not 
always made of gauze, but 
gauze weaves are often used in 
the figuring of fabrics which have 
a plain ground. 

When speaking of a gauze 
fabric, one woven entirely with 
the gauze weave is understood. 
(This does not include ordinary 
gauze fabrics for linings, and, in 
this section, these are not con- 
sidered.) When but a few ends 
weave according to the principle 
of these weaves, we generally call the fabrics leno. Both gaiize 
and leno weaving are generally spoken of as " Doup Weaving." 
They are all woven according to the same theory. 

Of gauze weaves, onh^ the theoretical part, or designing of 
them, can first be taken up. For the peculiar interlacing of the 
ends must first be understood thoroughly, before any progress 
can be made in the practical part of the construction of these 
fabrics. The practical part, or the weaving, will be considered 
later. 

In the construction of gauze or leno fabrics (doup weaving) , 
two warps, or two sets of warp threads, are to be considered; first, 
the ground warp, generally classified as the standard ends; and 
second, the leno warp, generally classified as the doup ends. 

The standard ends weaA^e straight like the ends in ordinary 
fabrics, while the doup ends whip or 
twist around the standard ends dur- 
ing the weaving. f 

For gauze weaves two sets of 
harnesses are required; the ground or 
standard harnesses, and the doup or 
leno harnesses. (At the present time 
it seems as if the term leno is oftener 
used in the connection with these 
weaves than either gauze or doup.) 
For the set of ground harnesses the 
regular frames are used. A special 
harness, consisting of one whole and 
for the doup harnesses; the doup ends 




Figure 124 

one half-harness, is used 

only being drawn through this set of harness-frames. 



81 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 




Figure 125 



The doup harness, as mentioned in the foregoing paragraph, 
consists of one whole and one half-harness; i.e., it consists of one 
harness-frame with regular heddles (either cotton or wire) on 
same, and one half -harness with half heddles (generally made of 
fine cotton, fine, hard twisted worsted, or silk), which are 

threaded through the eyes of the 
heddles on the whole frame. (vSee 

-| 1-| """• Fig. 123 which illustrates a doup 

Y Y harness made of cotton twine 

Ml \ heddles.) When wire heddles are 

used on the whole-harness frame, 
it should be those which have two 
openings, or eyes, and the heddles 
of the half-harness should be 
threaded much the same as in Fig. 
123 through these eyes. 
The interlacing of the ends, with the ends and picks, is best 
explained by means of the plainest of all doup weaves, namely, 
the gauze weave. This weave repeats on two ends and two picks; 
i.e., two ends and two picks are 
required. It is illustrated by 
Fig. 124, which can be termed 
*' cloth view," as this is exactly 
the appearance of a gauze fabric, 
though somewhat enlarged. 

The first end, indicated by 
A, is the doup end, and the sec- 
ond, indicated by B, is the 
standard end. These are drawn 
through the ground harnesses, 
from front to rear. Fig. 125 
illustrates the drawing-in of these 
ends; A is the ground harnesses 
and B the doup harness. From 
this illustration it can be seen 
that the doup ends are passed underneath the standard ends, 
and then drawn through the doup heddles. This is the case 
when the half-heddles of the half-harness are below; when they 
are on top, then the doup ends are passed over the standard ends. 
From Fig. 124 it can readily be seen that the doup ends 
weave on both sides of the standard ends, the doup ends being 
raised first on one, then on the other side of the standard ends. 
Fig. 126 illustrates the manner in which the doup ends are drawn 
through the doup heddles, after they have been drawn through 
those of the ground harness. From this it is seen that all the 
doup ends are drawn in twice. 

82 




Figure 126 



OF WOVEX FABRICS 




Figure 127 



In doup weaving we distinguish three sheds, but only two of 
them are used in the construction of the gauze weave. The first 
shed, Fig. 127, illustrates that known as the half-doup, or halj- 
leno. It is formed by raising the ground harness, through which 
the doup ends are drawn, and the half- 
harness; the ground harness, on which 
the standard ends are drawn, remains 
down. Fig. 128 illustrates the second 
of these sheds, which is known as 
the full-doup or full-leno. This one is 
formed by the raising of the full-doup 
harness; i.e., the whole and half harness 
together, both of the ground harnesses 
remaining down. These two sheds are 
the only ones formed in the weaving of 
the regular gauze fabrics. The third 
shed, illustrated by Fig. 129, is formed 
by raising the ground harness, on which 
the standard ends are drawn. This one 
is known as the open doup or open leno 
shed. 

The third of these sheds is used in the construction of fabrics 
illustrated by Fig. 130. Fig. 131 illustrates the drawing-in and 
chain drafts for this 
weave; A are the ground 
harness, B the doup 
harness, and C are the 
picks. The dots on each 
pick indicate which 
harness, or harnesses, are 
raised while the picks 
enter the shed. 

Thus far the regular 
gauze weave only has 
been considered. This, 
as mentioned above, re- 
peats on two ends and 
two picks. In all gauze 
weaves, the standard 

ends which are crossed Figure 128 

by one or more doup ends, including the doup ends, are reeded 
into the same dent. Therefore, in the regular gauze weave, two 
ends are reeded into every dent, or every other dent, as the 
case may require, the two ends consisting of one standard and 
one doup end. The doup end, twisting or whipping around 
the standard end, must therefore be drawn into the same dent 

83 




DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 



with the one around which it is to whip; otherwise the doup 
end could not whip around the standard end. 

The desired effects for these fabrics are first drawn out on 
paper. In doing this, care must be taken that all the ends 
receive their right interlacing and crossing. When designing 
these effects it is best first to draw vertical lines, two for every end 
to be used, leaving about the same space between the ends as 
occupied by them; after this, horizontal lines, indicating the picks, 

are drawn in the 
same manner. 
This should be 
done with pencil. 
Two sets of ends 
must be considered 
when drawing 
these effects: the 
standard ends, 
which are generally 
indicated by light, 
unshadedlines, and 
the doup ends, 
which are indi- 
cated by heavily 
shaded lines. After 
having penciled 
out a sufficient 
number of ends 
and picks, the in- 
terlacing is first 
penciled in and 
afterwards carried 
out with either 
color or ink. 
^" — ^ This method 

is mostly used for 
the designing of all 
there are but a limited number of doup 
point paper, reserving one 




Figure 129 



Figure 130 



I— 


3 




o 
1 7 2. 





Figure 131 



gauze (leno) eft'ects. If 

ends, the designing may be done on 

end for every doup end on each side of the ones around which it is 

to whip. 

The drawing-in can be planned either as illustrated by Fig. 
125, or it may be done on point paper. In this case the space of 
two ends is also required for every doup end, one on each side of 
the one, or ones, around which it is to whip. The drawing-in 
draft is started by first drawing all the ends on their respective 
ground harness; the doup ends are then crossed over or under the 

84 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 




standard ends (depending upon whether the half-harness is on 
top or bottom), and drawn on its respective doup harness. It is 
always advisable to draw a line, indicating the crossing of the 
doup end over or under the standard end, from the line which 
indicates the drawing-in of the doup end on the ground harness 
(beginning this line in front of all the 
ground harness), to the line which 
indicates the drawing-in of the doupo 
end on the doup harness. 

Fig. 132 illustrates a drawing-in' 
draft for a leno carried out on point _ ^ 
paper; A are the ends (spaces between ^ ^ 

the vertical lines) , reserved for the in- Figure 132 

dicating of the doup ends where they are drawn on the ground 
harness; B are the spaces reserved for the indicating of the 
doup ends where they are drawn on the doup harness; C are 
the standard ends; D is the ground, and E the doup harness. 

In order better to understand the interlacing of the ends and 
picks, and the whipping of the doup ends around the others, it 
will be well to refer to the regular gauze weave Fig. 124. 

This weave repeats on two ends and two picks, which neces- 
sarily calls for the formation of two sheds per repeat. The first 
shed is formed by the raising of the ground harness, on which the 
doup ends are drawn, together with the half -harness (see Fig. 
127). From this figure it can be seen that the standard end 
remains down, the whole heddle of the doup harness being on the 
right-hand side of this end; and the heddle on the ground harness 
and the half-heddle, through which the doup end is drawn, being 
on the left-hand side of the standard end. The pick, passing 
through the shed formed in this manner, will force the doup end 
to remain on the left-hand side of the standard one. 

After the first shed the second one is formed. This is done 
by raising the whole doup harness (the whole and half-harness 
together), see Fig. 128. From this figure it can be seen that both 
ground harness remain down, the doup end being crossed under- 
neath the standard end and raised on the right-hand side of same. 
The pick, passing through this shed, will force the doup end to 
remain on the right-hand side of the standard one. The next 
shed (the first one) will again bring the doup end on the left-hand 
side of the standard, etc., etc. In this manner the doup or whip 
ends are whipped alternately from one side to the other. 

In the foregoing, the regular gauze weave has principally 
been mentioned: this is generally known as a full-turn leno. 
There will now be considered what is termed half-turn leno. In 
this weave, — sketched under Fig 133, — A is the drawing-in 
draft, and at the same time, also the chain draft. The weave 

85 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 



repeats on two ends and four picks. The first shed, through 
which the first pick passes, is the half-leno; the second shed, the 

one into which the second pick enters, is 
the open (see Fig. 129); the third, the 
one for the third pick, is the fuU-leno; 
and the fourth, the one for the fourth 
pick, is another open shed. 

This class of weaves is used for 




Figure 133 



rt 



m 



/ 2 3 ^ 

A 

Figure 133 A 



^ 



M 



:^ 



B 

Figure 134 




Figure 135 



m 


) 



) O 

9 


1 


) 0» 
2 J ^ S ff 



Figure 135 A 



heavier gauze fabrics. The extra picks, those entering the 
open sheds, are put in to increase the weight. 

Two kinds of doup ends are generally distinguished: those 
which are drawn on the ground harness before, i.e., on the left- 
hand side of the standard end and from there passed over to 
the right-hand side; and those which are drawn on the ground 
harness after, i.e., on the right-hand side of the standard end 

86 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 



and passed over to the left-hand side. The first, or those 
passing from left to right, are termed right-hand; the second, or 
those passing from right to left, are termed left-hand doup ends. 

Fig. 134 illustrates the left and right-hand doup ends, A 
being the right-hand, and B the left-hand one. 

Fig. 135 illustrates a doup (leno) weave of a more elaborate 
nature. This repeats on eight ends and six picks. It is woven 
on four ground and two doup harness. The drawing-in and 
chain drafts are illustrated by .4. The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 
indicate the picks, and the dots between the lines (those 
which inclose the different numbers) indicate the raising 
of the harness. 

On the different combinations of doup (leno) effects alone, 
an entire book can be written, but in this the gauze, leno, or 
doup weaves are described and illustrated only sufficiently for 
the student to understand them, so that he may create weaves 
of this nature on his own account. 

Fig. 136 illustrates another leno, one known as a snake effect, 
carried out on 
point paper, 
designed to be 
woven face up. 
A is the draw- 
ing-in, B the 
chain draft, 
and C is the 
reeding. 

Upon ex- 
amining Fig. 
128, the full- 
leno shed, it 
can be seen 
that the doup 
end undergoes 
consider able 
strain, as it* 
passes from 
under the 
standard end** 
directly up, at 
an angle of 
about seventy- 
five degrees. In order to lessen this strain a device has 
been constructed known as the slackener. This is constructed 
in various ways, various appliances answering the same piirpose. 

The oldest method used for slackening the doup ends, so that 

87 








Figure 136 



DESIGXIXG AXD COXSTRUCTIOX 



they will not break when forming the full-leno shed, is to draw 
all the doup ends through a harness-frame before they are drawn 
through the ground harness. This extra harness-frame is then 
placed behind the ground harness and as near to the whip roll 
as possible; the eyes of the heddles (which are longer than those 
of the regular heddles) , being several inches below the eyes of the 
heddles on the ground harness. In this manner the doup ends 
are pulled down. Whenever the full-leno shed is formed, this 
extra harness is raised so that the eyes of its heddles come on a 
level with those on the other harness-frames, thus bringing up 

and slackening the doup 
ends. Fig. 137 illustrates 
one of these slackeners. 
This method of slackening 
the doup warp is used to 
good advantage on hand 
looms. 

The modern slackeners 
consist of a rod (one rod 
for every doup harness), 
which runs across the 
loom, in the rear of the 
ground harness and as 
near to the whip roll as 
possible, and sometimes 
beyond it. The proper position for this rod when at rest is 
above the whip roll. Another rod, which forms the axle for 
the first, runs parallel with it. To this rod a lever is fastened 
which is connected w4th the head of the loom. This lever is 
raised every time the full-doup shed is formed, which brings down 
the first rod (over which the doup ends are passed), thus slacken- 
ing them. 

Although lenos are also woven on the Jacquard loom, no 
description of them will here be made. To understand them a 
student would require a thorough explanation of the Jacquard 
machine, which cannot be undertaken in the limits of this book. 
Suffice it to say that the principle of lenos made on the Jacquard 
loom is exactly the same as that explained in the connection with 
the harness loom. 




Figure 137 



88 



CHAPTER NINE. 
TRIPLE AND MORE PLY CLOTHS. 

59. Triple Cloths. Triple cloths are made up of three inde- 
pendent fabrics. They are termed face, middle, and back; each 
one of them has its own warp and filling. They are combined 
by stitching the back fabric to the middle, and the middle 
fabric to the face. At times an extra warp is employed for the 
stitching. 

Fig. 138 illustrates the section cut of a three-ply fabric in 
which the stitching is done by the back warp interlacing with the 




Figure 138 

middle filling, and the middle warp interlacing with the face 
filling at certain intervals. A is the face fabric, B the middle, 
and C is the back fabric. All three fabrics interlace according 
to the plain weave. 

When laying out a weave for triple cloths, three warps and 
three fillings must be considered; namely face warp and face fill- 
ing, which constitute the face fabric; middle warp and middle 





Figure 139 



Figure 140 



filling, which form the middle fabric; and back warp and filling, 
which constitute the back fabric. In order to lay out one of these 
weaves correctly on point paper, the following rules should be 
followed : 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

Rule 1. Indicate the face, middle, and back warps and 
fillings. This is best done by indicating the back threads only. 
See Fig. 139. In this weave the warps and fillings are arranged 
one face, one middle, and one back. 

Rule 2. Place the face weave on the face threads. See 
Fig. 140. 

i 




«1 



mm?^m 



3-2i 






Figure 141 



Figure 142 



Rule 3. Place the middle weave on the middle threads. 
See Fig. 141. 

Rule 4. Place the back weave on the back threads. See 
Fig. 142. 

Rule 5. Raise all the face warp over the middle and back 
picks. See Fig. 143. 



' a^ HE TE' 1 




Figure 143 



Figure 144 



F^ 


^ 


2 


L 


^i. 


A 




y 


J> 






r 


/frn 


/ 


L* 1 1 ;/ 



m m 1-1 



iJ i.^^^« 



Figure 145 




K 


i&k 


4.mmM 


tS3^ 


^»S^4 


B 


PPP 



Figure 146 



Rule 6. Raise all the middle warp over the back picks. 
See Fig. 144. 



90 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

Rule 7. Stitch the middle to the face fabric. See Fig. 145. 
In this illustration the stitching of these two fabrics is done by 
raising the middle ends over the face picks according to the ^^^j 
twill. 

Rule 8. Stitch the back to the middle fabric. See Fig. 
146. In this illustration the stitching of these two fabrics is done 
by raising the back ends over middle picks according to the .r^j^j 

twin. 

For the illustration of the above rules a weave has been con- 
structed in which all three fabrics are interlaced according to the 
plain weave. The stitching is done so that it will be least notice- 
able on the face and back of the goods. Triple cloths can also be 
stitched by lowering the face warp under middle picks, and the 
middle warp under back picks; or by lowering the face warp under 
middle picks, and raising the back warp over middle picks. Of 
course the stitching should always be done so as to least inter- 
fere with the appearance of the face and back of the goods; i.e., 
an invisible stitch (as explained in Chapter Seven, the Principle 
and Construction of Double Cloths), should always be used. 

In this manner, i.e., weaving one fabric on top of another, 
four and more ply cloth can be constructed. When constructing 
four-ply cloths it must be remembered that four independent 
fabrics are being dealt with, requiring four warps and four fillings, 
etc. The same rules may be followed as in the construction of 
triple cloths, raising all the warp of the top fabrics over all the 
fillings of the fabrics underneath; i.e., the face warp will be raised 
over the second, third and fourth or back fillings; the second warp 
will be raised over the third and back fillings; and the third warp 
will be raised over the back picks. (In this case the different 
fabrics are termed face or first, second, third, and fourth or back.) 

Fig. 147 illustrates the weave for a four-ply fabric. In this 
case the finished weave only has been illustrated. The warps and 
fillings are arranged one face, one second, one 
third, and one back. The plain weave is used 
for the interlacing of each fabric; the plain 
weave arrangement is also used for the 
stitching. The first and second fabrics are 
stitched together by raising the second warp 
over the first filling; the second and third 
fabrics are stitched by raising the third warp 
over the second filling; and the third and 
fourth fabrics are stitched by raising the back Figure 147 

warp over the third filling. 

These three and more ply cloths are used for producing 
fabrics of a very heavy nature; they are also used in the produc- 
tion of three, four, and more colored fabrics. 

91 




DEvSIGXIXG AND COXSTRUCTIOX 



60. Figured Triple Cloths. By making each fabric of a 
different color, and by having the different fabrics exchange 
places with one another, cloths are produced which are figured 
by means of three solid colors; in other words, fabrics of a three- 
colored face can be produced. 

Fig. 148 illustrates a motive for one of these weaves. Every 

block in the mo- 
tive represents one 
face end and one 
face pick. The 
plain weave is used 
for the interlacing 
of the different 
fabrics; all stitch- 
ing is omitted as 
the fabrics passing 
from face to 
middle, and from 
there to the back, 
etc., will do all the 
Figure 149 stitchingnecessar^^ 

Fig. 149 is the weave which will produce the effect required 
by motive Fig. 148. 

This figuring may be made more complicated and elaborate 
by using a different interlacing for each fabric; also by having the 
first warp and first filling weave on the face and then change, so 
that the first warp and middle filling will weave on the face; etc., 
etc. There are many possible ways of figuring by means of three- 
ply fabrics. 





Figure 148 



92 



CHAPTER TEN. 
PILE FABRICS. 

61. Corduroys. x-Vmong pile fabrics two separate classes 
are distinguished: first, pile fabrics in which the pile is produced 
by means of the filling; second, those in which the pile is produced 
by means of the warp. The first class is known as " Filling Pile," 
and the second class as " Warp Pile." Both are characterized 
by the soft velvety surface, on the face of the goods (this does not 
apply to uncut pile fabrics), covering to a certain extent, and at 
times altogether, the interlacing of the warps and fillings. 

Corduroys belong to the filling pile fabrics and require, for 
their construction, one warp and two fillings. The fillings mav 
be of the same material and size; they are known as the ground 
and pile. 

The arrangement of the fillings is usually one pile to one pick 
ground, two pile to one ground, etc. There should never be as 
much ground filling (in bulk) as there is pile, as the pile filling is 
destined to form the face of the fabric and cover up all the other 
threads; therefore the arrangement of two of pile to one of 
ground is mostly used. 

The ground filling weaves with the warp to form the body or 
ground of the goods, while the pile filling forms the face, inter- 
lacing with the warp sufficiently to keep it from pulling out, and 
at the same time producing the effect required. The plain weave, 
or some other tightly interlaced one, is used for the interlacing of 
the warp and grotmd filling, the pile filling interlacing with one, 
two, or more ends after floating over three, five or more ends; 
this filling interlaces with the same ends throughout the goods. 

After the goods have been woven, the pile filling is cut in the 
middle of its floats, thus causing grooves 
or ribs, which run lengthwise in the 
fabric; the highest points of the ribs are 
where the pile filling is interlaced with 
the warp. The cutting is done on a table 
with a knife, which is run along the 
centre of the floats, the knife being 
guided bv hand. Recentlv machines ,,. ,.^ 

1 1 "^ 1 r r ■ r Figure 150 

nave been constructed tor the cuttmg ot 

these pile fabrics and they have met with more or less success. 

Before cutting, the goods are often treated with a process of 

98 





DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

sizing to strengthen the pile filHng and hold it in its place. This 
size is made of flour-paste and gives a disagreeable odor to the 
goods. 

Fig. 150 illustrates a corduroy weave in which the fillings 
are arranged, two of pile to one of ground. The ground filling 
weaves with the warp according to the plain weave, and the first 
pile pick weaves aVsi the second pile pick weaves 7-0^2- The 
entire weave repeats on ten ends and six picks. 

62. Velveteens. These are another class of filling pile 
weaves and are constructed much after the principle of cordu- 
roys. Instead of the pile filling interlacing with the same ends 
throughout, as in corduroys, it interlaces with the warp according 
to some loose weave of a twilled nature, or to any other of a 
loosely constructed sort. The cutting is carried on in exactly the 

same manner as in corduroys, there being 
more rows to cut, as velveteens, as a rule, are 
of a closer construction. 

Fig. 151 illustrates a weave for a common 
velveteen, which repeats on four ends and six 
picks. The fillings are arranged two of pile to 
FTurTTsT^ alternate with one of ground; the ground 
weaving plain, and the pile according to an 
arrangement of ^^, every other pile pick interlacing in the same 
manner. 

Corduroys and velveteens are mostly made of cotton warp 
and cotton fillings. 

63. Chenille. By this class of weaves, another class of fill- 
ing pile fabrics is represented. They differ from corduroys and 
velveteens in many respects, the main difference being in the 
manner in which the pile is produced. Chenille itself is a fringed 
thread, used for filling purposes. It is woven on the loom by 
having the warp reeded so that three or four ends will come into 
the same dent, and that two, three or more dents are skipped 
after every one used (according to the thickness of the chenille 
thread required), thus having the filling interlace with sets of 
ends, at intervals, across the width of the loom. 

Every set of these ends forms one chenille thread. These 
may be cut apart either during the weaving, or after the fabric 
comes from the loom by means of the chenille cutting machine. 

This machine consists of a series of rollers around which the 
fabric travels, and knives placed in front of combs cut the differ- 
ent threads apart. 

These chenille threads are used for filling in fabrics known 
as chenille rugs, pillow covers, etc. The plain weave is generally 

94 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

employed, the fuzzy chenille thread forming the pile. From this 
it can be seen that the larger the spaces between the different sets 
of ends (during the weaving of the chenille threads), the higher 
the pile will be in the goods. 

A large variety of colors may be used in the manufacture of 
chenille threads. When using such it is customary first to lay out 
the design of the fabric for which the chenille threads are to be 
used, then cut this design into strips, each strip representing one 
pick (one chenille thread) . According to the colors of every one 
of these strips, the colors in the filling, used in the weaving of the 
chenille threads, are arranged. 

Chenille threads are also used for fringes, etc. 

After the chenille threads have been cut, they are wound on 
spools during which process some twist is put in the threads, 
about two or three turns being the limit. This twist strengthens 
them and keeps the filling, after being cut, from pulling out. 
They are woven with the plain weave. 

64. Warp Pile Fabrics. Under this heading fabrics are 
considered in which the pile is produced by means of the warp. 
They are made of two warps and two fillings. The warps are 
termed pile and ground, and the fillings temporary and ground. 
The temporary filling is either narrow steel wires, with cutting 
tools on one side (on the side which first enters the shed) , spoken 
of as wires, or plain wires, without the cutting edges. When a 
temporary pick is to enter the shed, either all or a part of the 
pile warp is raised, thus forming loops; this pick is pulled out 
again after five or six temporary picks have followed, and then 
they are pulled out in turn. When wires are used which have 
cutting edges, the pile ends which have been raised over the wires 
will be cut; if, on the other hand, plain wires are used, the pile 
warp will not be cut. The cut pile is technically known as velvet, 
and the uncut as terry pile. 

The pile warp being raised over wires, naturally has a larger 
take-up, therefore it must be beamed onto a separate beam from 
that of the ground warp. When, however, only part of the pile 
ends are raised over the different temporary picks, so that they 
will obtain a different amount of take-up, then more than one 
beam is required for the pile warp. In some classes of goods, 
such as Brussels Carpet, every pile end is on a separate beam 
(spool) . 

The arrangement of the fillings may be one temporary pick, 
one ground pick; one temporary pick, two ground picks, etc. 
When the pile ends are raised over a temporary pick, they are 
generally lowered under the ground picks preceding and follow- 
ing the temporary pick, or they are lowered under the one foUow- 

95 



DESIGXIXG AND COXSTRUCTIOX 

ing the temporary pick only. The pile warp interlaces with the 
ground filling (the ground warp and filling forming the body of 
the goods), to receive some hold on the body of the goods, and 
naturally, the more the pile warp interlaces with the ground fill- 
ing, the stronger the face of the fabric will become, and the less 
the pile, either velvet or terry, will be apt to pull out. 

The ground warp and filling usually interlace according to 
some close weave, such as the plain, 2 and 2 rib, 2 and 1 rib, 2 and 
2 basket, ^o twill, etc., etc. The pile warp interlaces with the 
temporary filling according to the fabric required; sometimes 
all of the pile warp is raised over every wire, and at other times 
the pile ends are raised over the different wires according to 
some weave or motive. 

Velvet and Plush. For the construction of 
these fabrics the same weaves can be employed, 
the difference being in the length of the pile, 
plush fabrics having the longer and velvets the 
finer and shorter pile. 

They are generally made with silk or cotton, 
for the ground warp and filling, and silk for the 
pile warp, this latter forming the face. 
Figure 152 ^^^- -^'^- illustrates a weave for one of those 

fabrics; the warps are arranged two ground and 
one pile, and the fillings, three ground picks to every temporary 
pick (wire). The ground threads interlace according to the 2 
and 2 warp-rib weave. The pile ends are lowered under the 
ground picks preceding and following the temporary picks. 



u 


i^S 


i- 


^$ 


i: 

■ 


Wk 




Figure 153 

Fig. 153 illustrates the cut for weave Fig. 152. 

In recent years, these fabrics have been woven double; i.e., 
one fabric on top of the other. This is done by having one beam 
for the ground warp of the top cloth, one beam for the ground 
warp of the bottom cloth, and one beam for the warp which inter- 
laces with both the top and bottom fabrics. They are cut apart 
during the weaving by means of a knife-blade, w^hich passes to 
and fro across the loom above the breast-beam. The top cloth 
is wound onto a roll above, and the bottom cloth is wound upon 
a roll below the breast-beam. 

A special loom is employed for the weaving of velvets in this 
manner. A double banked lay is employed, on which two 
shuttles can pass at the same time through the shed (two sheds 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

being formed at the same time, one for each fabric) one on top, 
and the other right below the top one. 

Velvets and plushes can be figured by raising the pile warp 
over the temporary picks according to some prearranged design; 
i.e., raising only certain pile ends at places to form a velvet pile 
and at others no ends are raised, thus forming a low or depressed 
place in the goods. These effects are mostly woven with the help 
of a Jacquard machine although some of a less elaborate nature 
can be woven on the harness looms. They can also be figured by 
introducing high and low wires into the sheds for the temporary 
filling, thus forming a high and low pile. 

Astrakhans. This is a fabric somewhat related to velvets 
and is constructed according to the same principles; i.e., warp- 
pile fabrics. They are constructed of pile and ground warps, and 
temporary and ground fillings. The pile warp, in this case, is 
made from a curly yarn, thus giving a curly, crimpled appearance 
to the face of the fabric. Both velvet and terry pile is used in 
the production of these goods; the entire fabric may be of either, 
or it may be made of a ground of terry figured by means of velvet 
pile, or vice versa. 

Tapestry Carpet. This is another sort of warp pile fabrics 
composed of pile, ground and stuffer warps, and temporary and 
ground filling. 

In this case the color design is printed on the pile warp 
before it goes into the loom, a sufficient amount of take-up being 
allowed so that it will give the required effect in the woven goods; 
i.e., by printing the design on the warp so that it will be twice 
(or thereabouts) as long as required by the design. These car- 
pets are of a cheap character and are made in imitation of Brus- 
sels. A coarse worsted yarn is used for the pile warp, cotton flax 
(linen), or jute for the ground, and flax or jute for the stuffer. 

When designing tapestry carpets, the design is generally laid 
out on point paper which has 8x8 blocks per inch; this size of 
paper is best adapted for a texture of eight pile ends, and eight 
wires per inch. From this design an enlargement is made for the 
printer; i.e., the design is enlarged lengthwise, because the warp 
takes up in that direction. 

The warps are generally arranged one ground, one stuffer, 
one pile, and one ground; this forms one set and is reeded into one 
dent, the two ground ends being parted by means of the reed. 
The fillings are arranged two ground, one temporary. The 2 and 
2 basket is used for the ground weave; all the pile warp is raised 
over every wire. The ground weave is started so that the adjoin- 
ing ends will weave opposite; i.e., when one end is up, the other 
is down. 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

Brussels and Wilton Carpets. Both of these are woven on 
the same principle, and, in fact, are the same fabric, Brussels 
being uncut and Wiltons cut; i.e., Brussels have the terry pile 
while Wiltons are made of velvet pile. 

This class of goods is constructed somewhat differently from 
the velvet pile fabrics where but one pile warp is considered. In 
this case every color means a different warp, and one end of each 
color must be reeded into one dent; therefore, to make a five- 
colored Brussels, five pile ends must reed into the same dent. 
One set of pile ends (one end of every color used), and two ground 
ends are reeded into every dent. 

In the weaving of these goods, every pile end is wound upon 
a separate spool. All spools with the same colored ends are 
placed upon a rack on the back of the loom, termed a frame. 
Therefore for every color used in the weaving of these fabrics 
(those belonging to the pile) , there must be one frame, and accord- 
ing to the number of these frames required, the goods are named. 
When speaking of a three-frame Brussels, one is meant which is 
made with a three-colored design; a four-frame Brussels is one 
with a four-colored design, etc. The most elaborate Brussels has 
about six frames. 

The ground warp is of either linen, cotton, or jute; the filling 
of jute; the pile warp of worsted, of a better and finer quality 
than that used for tapestry carpets. The pile warp, when not 
raised over the temporary picks, lies in the middle and partially 
on the back of the goods, thus increasing its bulk and weight. 

As mentioned above, one end of every color required for the 





Figure 154 

production of these fabrics is placed side by side in every dent. 
When a different set of colors is used for the centre from that used 
for the borders, we need not have ends of the colors, used in the 
borders, in the centre of the fabric, unless they are required there. 
When any one of these pile ends is raised over a wire, it covers 
up all the other pile ends in the same dent, therefore we raise only 

98 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

those ends which are of the color required by the design, at the 
places where this color is shown. 

In the three-frame Brussels we have a warp arrangement of 
one ground to three pile (one of every color), and one ground. In 
a four-frame Brussels we have a warp arrangement of one ground, 
four pile (one of each color), and one ground, etc. 

Fig. 154, A illustrates a motive (color design) for a four- 
frame Brussels while B illustrates the weave carried out from 
motive A. 



99 



BOOK TWO 



CONTENIS 



BOOK II. 

Chapter One. 

Page. 

The Grading of Yarns 3 — ^6 

Textile Fibres 3 

Standard Numbers 3 

To find the count of any yarn (excepting Raw Silk) 4 

To find the number of yards of yarn per pound 5 

To find the number of yards of yarn per ounce 5 

To find the weight, in pounds, of any amount of yarn 5 

To find the weight, in ounces, of any amount of yarn 6 

Chapter Two. 
Equivalent Counts, Ply Yarns, and Their Single Equivalents . 7 — 15 

To find the equivalent count in other materials 7 

To find the single equivalent count of two and more ply 

threads made of ininor threads of the same count and 

material 8 

Ply yarns in Spun Silk 8 

Equivalents of compound threads composed of minor threads 

of different counts, of the same material 9 

Equivalents of compound threads composed of two minor 

threads of different counts and materials 9 

Three ply threads of different counts of the same material. . . 10 

Three ply threads of different counts and of different materials 1 1 
Four and more ply threads of different counts and of different 

materials 12 

To find count of required minor threads in same material as 

that of the given minor and the desired compound thread . . 14 
To find the count of the required minor thread in another 

material from the given minor thread 14 

Chapter Three. 

Grading of Raw Silk Yarns 16 — 20 

Dram System 16 

To find the number of yards per pound of dram silks 16 

To find the number of yards per ounce of any dram silk 17 

To find the equivalent of dram silk in other systems 17 

To find the equivalent in dram silk of other yarns. . 17 

Denier System 18 

Number of yards per pound of denier silks 18 

Number of yards per ounce of denier silks 18 

Equivalent counts in the denier system to those in the dram 

system 19 

Equivalent counts in the dram system to those in the denier 

system 19 

Equivalent counts in other systems to those of the denier 

system 19 

Equivalent counts in the denier systein to those of other 

systems 20 

Chapter Four. 

Calculations Pertaining to Cloth Analysis 21 — 27 

Samples 21 

The take-up in weaving 21 

The total number of yards of warp per yard of cloth 22 

The total number of yards of filling per yard of cloth 23 

The total number of yards, of the various yarns used 24 



No. Page 

35. Another method of finding the total number of each kind of 

warp yarn used per yard of cloth 2i 

36. To find the count of any yarn from a small sample 2( 

37. To find the weight of one yard of cloth, in ounces, from a 

small sample 2" 

Chapter Five. 
Analysts of Cloth 28 — 3: 

38. Points to be looked for when analysing a textile fabric 2t 

38a. Explanation of points 1, 2 and 3 2^1- 

39. Explanation of points 4 to 8, inclusive 3C 

40. Explanation of points 9, 10 and 11 :]] 

41. Explanation of points 12, 13 and 14 31 

Chapter Six. 
Warp Calculation 33 — 4C i 

42. Preparing the warp 33 j 

43. To find the number of ends in the warp 33 ' 

44. The pattern 34 

45. To find the number of patterns in the warp 35 

46. To find the total number of ends of each color in warp 36 j 

47. To find the number of yards of warp yarn required 37 | 

48. To find the number of yards of each color, or kind, of yarn j 

required 38 ' 

49. To find the weight of warp in ounces or pounds 38 

50. To find the count of warp yarn required 40 

51. To find the number of ends required in warp 40 

d2. To find the required length of warp 40 

Chapter Seven. 
Filling Calculations 41 — 44 

53. The Filling 41 

54. To find the number of pounds of filling required 41 

bb. To find the number of ounces of filling required. 42 

56. To find the required number of picks per inch 43 

57. To find the number of yards of cloth that can be woven 44 

58. To find the required count of the filling 44 

Chapter Eight. 
The Selvage, Take - Up of Warp during Weaving, Waste of 

Warp and Filling during Weaving 45 — 47 

59. The Selvage 45 

60. To find the length of fabric from loom 46 

61. Waste of warp and filling during weaving 46 

Chapter Nine. 
Examples Illustrating the Calculations for Finding the Cost. ,48 — 58 

62. Blue Serge Suiting 48 

63. Cotton Sheeting 49 

64. Cassimere Suiting 50 

65. Fancy Worsted Dress Goods 52 

66. Electric Tape 55 

67. Kersey Overcoating 57 

Chapter Ten. 
The Diameter of Threads 59 — 62 

68. The diameter of threads 59 

69. The number of ends and picks per inches, including the 

interlacing 59 

70. When the warp and filling are of different counts 61 



CHAPTER ONE. 
THE GRADING OF YARNS. 

1. Textile Fibres. Materials for the weaving of textiles are 
obtained from all three kingdoms of nature. The vegetable and 
animal kingdoms show more substances suitable for the manu- 
facturing of threads, than does the mineral kingdom. 

The vegetable kingdom yields cotton, flax, hemp, jute, ramie, 
pineapple fibres, caoutchouc (Indian rubber or elastic), china 
grass, etc. The animal kingdom produces wool, camel, cow, goat 
and horse hair; and silk. Gold, silver, copper, brass, iron, glass, 
asbestos, etc., are obtained from the mineral kingdom. 

These different materials require different processes of 
preparation before they can be used for weaving; for this reason 
they are divided into (1) such which are spun into a thread, as 
cotton, wool, linen, spun silk, camel's hair, etc; (2) those which 
are formed into threads by a process of rolling or stretching, such 
as gold, silver, copper, etc.; (3) materials which are converted 
into threads by splitting or dividing, such as long-fibred woods, 
caoutchouc, etc.; and (4) those which originally appear as threads, 
as silk from the cocoons (raw silk), straw, willows, etc. 

The materials mostly used in the manufacture of textiles are 
those which are converted into threads by the process of spinning. 
Threads spun may be composed of material of the same grade or 
of more grades mixed, such as a long-fibred wool with that of a 
shorter fibre, etc. ; or they may be composed of mixtures of several 
materials, such as wool with cotton, wool mixed with shoddy, etc. 

2. Standard Numbers. Threads are spun of various thick- 
nesses, some of which measure 2,800 yards to the pound and 
others which measure 32,000 yards per pound, etc. The difterent 
yarns are graded according to their number of yards per pound. 
(The grading of raw-silk yarns is based upon the weight of a 
certain yardage, and is entirely different from the grading of all 
other yarns, therefore it will be taken up in a later chapter.) In 
order to simplify the numbering of the different yarns Standard 
Numbers have been created. The standard number, or standard, 
is based upon the number of yards of yarn per Hank. Yarns of 
the various materials are wound into hanks of different sizes 
(as to yardage), therefore a different standard number is required 
for nearly every kind of yarn. 



DESIGXIXG AND COXSTRUCTIOX 

Cotton Yarns. The standard number for cotton yarns is 
840; i.e., these yarns are wound into hanks of 840 yards. The 
number of hanks required to balance one (1) pound indicates the 
size of the yarn. The size of a thread is better known as its 
Count or Number. If it requires eight hanks of a certain cotton 
yarn to balance one (1) pound, then it is known as eight's or 
1/8's cotton; if it should require twenty (20) hanks, then it 
would be known as twenty's or 1/20's cotton, etc. 

Spun Silk. This also has a standard hank of 840 3^ards; i.e., 
the standard number for spun-silk yarns is 840. The counts are 
indicated in the same manner as in cotton. 

Other silk yarns generally classed as spun silks are those 
known as floss, chappc, filosella, etc. 

Worsted Yarns. The standard number of these yarns is 
560; i.e., it takes 560 yards of No. I's worsted 3'arn to balance one 
(1) pound. 

Woolen Yarns. These yarns are graded according to two (2) 
systems, (a) the Run System, and (b) the Cut System. 

The Run System is mostly used in the New England States, 
and the Cut System in the Middle States. The Run System has 
a standard hank of 1,600 yards, while the standard number for the 
Cut System is 300. In both systems the number of hanks 
required for the balancing of one (1) pound indicates the count 
of the yarn. 

Linen. This has a standard hank of 300 yards. In this 
case the hank is spoken of as a Lea. The numbering is done in 
the same manner as in the yarns mentioned above. 

Ramie, Jute, China Grass. All of these yarns have a standard 
number of 300, the grading or numbering is done in the same 
manner as above; i.e., they are graded according to the number 
of hanks required to balance one pound. 

Cotton, spun silk, worsted, wool, linen, jute, ramie and china 
grass, are all spun, and for their various computations the same 
rules are applied. Raw silk, or silk obtained by the process of 
reeling direct from the cocoons, is computed in an entirely 
different manner and will not be taken up until the student 
thoroughly understands the calculations of the yarns named 
above. 

3. To find the count, number or size of any yarn (excepting 
raw silk), when the number of yards per pound* are given. 

Rule: Divide the number of yards per pound by the 
standard number of the yarn in question. 

Example: If 16,800 yards of cotton yarn weigh one (1) 
pound, what is its count? 

^Avoirdupois. 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

Solution: 16,800, the number of yards per pound, divided by 
840, the standard for cotton; i.e., 16,800 ^ 840 =20. Answer 
1/20's cotton. 

Example: If 6,400 yards of woolen yarn weigh one (1) 
pound, what is its count in the Run System? 

Solution: 6,400^ 1600 (which is the standard for run wool) , 
= 4. Answer, 4 run wool. 

4. To find the number of yards per pound of any yarn,* 
when the count or size and the material are given. 

Rule: Multiply the standard number of the yarn in question 
by its count. 

Example: Find the number of yards per pound of a 1/40's 
worsted. 

Solution: 560 (the standard for worsted) times 40 (the 
count of yarn in question); i.e., 560 X 40 = 22,400. Answer: 
22,400 yards of 1/40's worsted per pound. 

Example: Find the number of yards per pound of an 18 
cut wool. 

Solution: 300 (the standard for cut wool) times 18 (the 
count of the yarn in question); i.e., 300 X 18 = 5,400. Answer: 
5,400 yards of 18 cut wool per pound. 

5. To find the number of yards per ounce of any yarn, when 
the count and the material, of the yarn in question, are given. 

Rule: Multiply the standard number of the yarn in question 
by its count and divide the product by 16 (the number of ounces 
per pound). 

Example: Find the number of yards per ounce of a 30's 
lea linen. 

Solution: 300 (standard of linen) times 30 (the count of 
3^arn in question) divided by 16 (the number of ounces per pound) ; 
i.e., 300 X 30 = 9,000 yards per pound. 9,000 ^ 16 = 562.5. 
.4 nswer: '562.5 yards of 30 's lea linen per ounce. 

Example: Find the number of yards per ounce of a 1/36's 
cotton. 

Solution: 840 (the standard number for cotton) times 36 
(the count) divided bv 16 (the number of ounces per pound); i.e., 
840 X 36 -f- 16 = 1,890. Answer: 1,890 yards of 1/36's cotton 
per ounce. 

6. To find the weight in pounds of any amount of yarn when 
the count, material and the amount of yarn, in yards, are given. 

Rule: Divide the given number of yards of yarn by the 
number of yards per pound, of the yarn in question. 

*These rules are all given with the exception of raw silk. 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

Example: Find the weight in pounds of 324,840 yards of 
1/40's cotton. 

Solution: 840 X 40 = 33,600 yards of 1/40's cotton per 
pound. 324,840 4- 33,600 = 9.668 pounds. Answer: 324,840 
yards of 1/40's cotton weighs 9.668 pounds. 

Example: Find the weight in pounds of 1,372,000 yards of 
four (4) run wool. 

Solution: 1,600 X 4 = 6,400 yards of four (4) run wool per 
pound; hence, 1,372,000 -^ 6,400 = 214.375 pounds. Answer: 
1,372,000 yards of four (4) run wool weigh 214.375 pounds. 

7. To find the weight in ounces of any amount of yarn, when 
the count, material, and amount of yarn, in yards, are given. 

Rule: Divide the given number of yards of yarn by the 
number of yards per ounce of the yarn in question. 

Example: Find the weight of 2,250 yards of 16 cut wool in 
ounces. 

Solution: 300 X 16 h- 16 = 300 yards of 16 cut wool per 
ounce; hence, 2,250 ^ 300 = 7.5 ounces. Answer: 2,250 yards 
of 16 cut wool weigh 7.5 ounces. 

Example: Find the weight of 7,560 yards of 1/24' s worsted, 
in ounces. 

Solution: 560 X 24 -^ 16 = 840 yards of 1/24's worsted 
per ounce; hence, 7,560 4- 840 = 9 ounces. Answer: 7,560 
yards of 1/24's worsted weigh 9 ounces. 



I 



CHAPTER TWO. 

EQUIVALENT COUNTS, PLY YARNS AND THEIR 
SINGLE EQUIVALENTS. 

8. To find the equivalent count in a given material to the 
given count of another material. 

Rule: Divide the number of yards per pound of the given 
count by the standard number of the material in which the 
answer is required. 

Example: Find the equivalent count of a 1/20 's cotton in 
the worsted system. 

Solution: 840 X 20 = 16,800 yards of 1/20's cotton per 
pound. 16,800 -^ 560 (the standard number for worsted) =30's 
worsted. Answer: 1/30's worsted is the equivalent count to a 
1/20's cotton. 

Another and more expedient process is to carry out this rule 
bv cancellation, thus: 10 3 

20 X ^40 



f>W 



10 X 3 = 30. 



Answer: 1/30's worsted. 

Note: The standard numbers of cotton (840) and worsted 
(560) cancel down to three and two respectively. Therefore 
when changing the counts from cotton to worsted, or from wors- 
ted to cotton, the standard number for cotton can be replaced 
by three (3) and the standard number for worsted can be re- 
placed by two (2) . 

Example: (In accordance with the above note.) Find the 
equivalent count of a 1/24's worsted in the cotton system. 

Solution: 24 X 2 -^ 3 = 16's cotton. Ansiver: The equiv- 
alent to a 1/24's worsted is a 1/16's cotton. 

Proof: 560 X 24 = 13,440 yards per pound of 1/24's 
worsted. 13,440 ^ 840 = 16. Answer: 1/16's cotton. 

Proof No. 2: 840 X 16 = 13,440 yards of 1/16's cotton 
per pound. 13,440 -^ 560 = 24. Answer: 1/24's worsted. 

Note: From these two proofs it can be seen that a 1/24's 
worsted thread is as heavy as a 1/16's cotton, for they both have 
the same number of yards per pound. 

Example: Find the equivalent count in the run wool 
system to a 24 cut woolen yarn. 

Solution: 300 X 24 = 7,200 yards of 24 cut wool per 



DESIGXIXG AXD COXSTRUCTIOX 

pound. 7,200 -^ 1,600 = 4.5. Answer: 4.5 run wool is the 
equivalent count to a 24 cut wool. 

9. It is often the case that two or more threads of cotton 
and worsted are twisted together; they are then known as ply 
yarns. Ply yarns may be made by twisting two or more threads 
of the same count and material together, or the counts may vary 
and each thread may be of a different material. Ply yarns com- 
posed of threads of the same count and material are mostly 
indicated by writing the number of single threads, composing 
the ply yarn, first, and the size or count of the individual threads 
last; a division line being placed between the two numbers, thus: 
2/40's - indicating a ply thread made up of two threads, each 
being equivalent to a 1/40's. The number two indicates the ply 
and 40 indicates the count and is the indicated count. 

Two or more ply threads do not occur as often in woolen 
yarns as they do in cottons and worsteds, but spun-silk yarns 
nearly always come two or more ply. 

The ply thread is generally known as the compound thread 
and the threads which comprise the compound are known as the 
■minor threads. 

To find the single equivalent count of a compound thread 
composed of minor threads of the same count and material. 
(Excepting raw and spun silk yarns.) 

Rule: Divide the indicated count by the ply. 

Example: Find the single equivalent to a 2/40's cotton. 

Solution: 40-^2 = 20. Answer: The single equivalent to 
a 2/40's cotton is a 1/20 's. 

Example: Find the single equivalent of a 2/36's cut wool. 

Solution: 36^-2=18. Answer: 18 cut wool is the single 
equivalent to a 2/36's. 

Example: Find the single equivalent of a 3/48's worsted. 

Solution: 48-^3=16. Answer: 1/16's worsted is the 
single equivalent to a 3/48's worsted. 

Example: Find the single equivalent of a 4/40's cotton. 

Solution: 40^4=10. Answer: 1/10's cotton is the single 
equivalent to a 4/40's cotton. 

10. Spun silk is nearly alwa\^s two or more ply; in this case 
the indicated count equals its single equivalent and is indicated 
thus: 40/2, meaning that the size of the compound thread is 
equivalent to a 1/40's spun silk, i.e., having 840x40 yards of 
yarn per pound in a two-ply form. Again, 60/2 means a spun- 
silk thread made of two finer threads which, together, equal a 
1/60's. Therefore, in this case the rule is: The indicated count 
of spun-silk yarns stands for its single equivalent, the ply stands 

8 



I 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

for the number of finer threads required to produce the indicated 
size. A 60/2 may be made of 2/120's = 1/60's, or of a 1/100's and 
a 1/150's, these two together being equivalent to a 1/60's. 

Note: In all calculations involving two or more ply yarns, 
the single equivalent of the yarn should be used in com- 
putations. 

11. Compound threads are also composed of minor threads 
of different counts and of the same or different materials. 

To find the single equivalent count of a compound thread 
composed of two minor threads of different counts, both being 
of the same material, when the counts and material of the minor 
threads are given. 

Rule: Multiply the single-equivalent count of one minor 
thread by that of the other, and divide this product by the sum 
of the counts. 

Example: Find the single equivalent of a compound thread 
composed of a 1/60's and a 1/40's worsted. 

Solution: 60X40 = 2,400, the product of the two counts. 
60 + 40=100, the sum of the two counts. 2,400^100 = 24. 
Answer: The single equivalent of a compound thread composed 
of a 1/60's and a 1/40's worsted, is a 1/24's worsted. 

Solution: This sort of example is better done in cancella- 
tion, thus: 60X40 60X40 

= - - = 24. 

(60-f40) 10f) 
Answer: 1/24's worsted. 

Example: Find the single equivalent of a compound thread 
composed of an 18's and a 24's cut wool. 

3 
Solution: 18X24 18x24 72 

= - = —=10.286. 

(18 + 24) ^2 7 

7 
Answer: An 18's and a 24's cut wool make a compound 
thread which is equivalent to a 10.29 cut wool. 

12. To find the single equivalent of a compound thread com- 
posed of two minor threads of different counts and material, 
when the counts and materials of the minor threads are given. 

Rule: Change the counts of the minor threads to their 
single equivalent in the material in which the answer is required, 
then multiply the count of one minor thread by that of the other 
and divide this product by the sum of the counts. 

Example: Find the single equivalent of a compound thread 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

composed of a 2/40's cotton and 60/2 spun silk. Give answer in 
the cotton system. 

Solution: 2/40's cotton = 40-^2 = 1/20' s cotton. 60/2 spun 
silk = l/60's spun silk=l/60's cotton (as both cotton and 
spun silk have the same standard). 

15 
20X60 #X^^ 

= =15. 

(20 + 60) ^^ 

4 
Answer: A compound thread composed of a 2/40's cotton 
and a 60/2 spun silk is equivalent to a 1/15 's cotton. 

Example: Find the single equivalent of a compound 
thread composed of a 2/36's worsted and a 1/40's cotton. Give 
answer in the worsted system. 

Solution: 2/36's worsted = 36 -^ 2 = 1/18's worsted. 1/40's 
cotton = 40X3 --2 = 60, or 1/60's worsted. 

18X60 18X60 

= =13.846 + 

(18 + 60) 78 

Answer: A compound thread composed of a 2/36's worsted 
and a 1/40's cotton is equivalent to a 1/13.8's worsted. 

13. To find the single equivalent count of a compound thread 
composed of three minor threads of different counts of the same 
material. 

First Method. 

Rule: Take the single equivalent count of any two of the 
minor threads and find the single equivalent of the compound 
thread they would form. Then take this single equivalent and 
combining it with the third minor thread find the single equiva- 
lent of the compound thread they would make. This last single 
equivalent will be the answer. 

Example: Find the single equivalent of a compound yarn, 
composed of a 1/60's, a 1/60's, and a 1/40's worsted. 

Solution: 1/60's, 1/60's, and l/4()'s are the counts of the 
minor threads. Taking the first two counts 1/60's and 1/60's 
and combining them, they equal a 

30 
60X60 6pX# 

= '■ — = 30, or 1/30's worsted. 

(60 + 60) ;2^ 
'^ 
Taking this 1/30's and the third minor thread, 1/40's, and 
combining them they equal 30 X 40 ^70 = 17. 14 + . A nswer: A 

10 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

compound thread composed of a 1/60's, a 1/60's and a 1/40's 
worsted is equivalent to a 1/17.14 + 's worsted. 

Example: Find the single equivalent of a cotton compound 
thread composed of a 1/45's, a 1/60's and a 1/80's cotton. 

Solution: 1/45's, 1/60's and 1/80's are the counts of the 
given minor threads. Combining the two first gives 45X60^ 
(45 + 60)=45x60^105 = 25f cotton. Taking this single 
equivalent and the third minor thread equals 25|X80-^ 
(25f + 80)= 25|X 80 --105^ = 19.46-. Answer: A compound 
thread composed of a 1/45's, a 1/60's and a 1/80's cotton is 
equivalent to a 1/19.46 — 's cotton. 

Second Method. 

Rule: Take the highest count of the three minor threads 
and use it as a dividend, and divide it by itself, then divide it in 
turn by the counts of the other minor threads; add up the 
quotients and then divide the dividend (the highest count of the 
minor threads) by their sum. 

Example: Find the single equivalent count of a worsted 
compound thread composed of a 1/30's, a 1/60's and a 1/90's 
worsted. 

Solution: The highest count of the three minor threads is 
1/90's. This is used as the dividend thus: 90^90 = 1 

90^60 = 1.5 
90-30 = 3 



The sum of the quotients is 5.5 

Dividing the dividend (90) by the sum of the quotients (5.5) gives 
90 -^ 5.5= 16.36+ . Answer: The single equivalent of a com- 
pound thread composed of a 1/30's, a 1/60's and a 1/90's worsted, 
is a 1/16. 36's worsted. 

Example: Find the single equivalent count of a cotton 
compound thread composed of a 1/45's, a 1/30's and a 1/90's 
cotton. 

Solution: 1/90's is the highest of these three counts. 

90-^90 = 1 

90^45 = 2 90-6=15. 

90 -^ 30 = 3 

Sum of quotients, 6. 

Answer: The single equivalent of a compound thread com- 
posed of a 1/45's, a 1/30's and a 1/90's cotton, is a 1/15's cotton. 

14. To find the single equivalent count of a compound thread 
composed of three minor threads of different counts and materials, 
the counts and materials of the minor threads being given. 

11 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

Rule: Change all the counts to the single equivalent of the 
material in which the answer is required; then use either one of 
the above methods of finding the single equivalent count of com- 
pound threads composed of three minor threads of different 
counts of the same material. 

Example: Find the single equivalent count of a compound 
thread composed of a 2/60's worsted, a 60/2 spun silk, and a 
1/45's cotton in the worsted svstem. 

Solution: 2/60's worsted = 60-- 2 = 1/30's worsted. 60/2 
spun silk =1/60 spun silk = 60x3^2 = 1/90's worsted. 1/45's 
cotton = 45 X 3^2= 1/67. 5's worsted. Of the three minor 
threads 1/90'sis the highest count. 
90-90 =1 

90-f-30 =3 90-5^ = 161 

90-67.5=11 



Answer: A compound thread composed of a 2/60's worsted, 
a 60/2 spun silk and a 1/45's cotton is equivalent to a l/16|'s 
worsted. 

Example: Find the single equivalent of a compound thread 
composed of a 32 cut wool, a 6 run wool, and a 1/20's worsted, in 
the worsted system. 

Solution: 32 cut wool = 32x300-^560 = 17| w^orsted. 
6 run wool = 6X1,600-560=171 worsted. The counts of 
the three minor threads in the worsted system are l/17i's, 
l/17}'s and 1/20's. As these are badly broken up numbers 
the first method is the better one to use in this case. 17|X 
17i-34f = 8i. 8fX20-284 = 6. Answer: A compound 
thread composed of a 32 cut wool, a 6 run wool, and a 1/20's 
worsted is equivalent to a 1/6's worsted. 

15. To find the single equivalent count of compound threads 
composed of four or more minor threads of different sizes and 
either the same or different materials, when the counts and 
materials of minor threads are given. 

First Method. 

Rule: Change the counts of all the minor threads to their 
single equivalent of the material in which the answer is required, 
then take any two counts of the minor threads and find their 
single equivalent. Then take the counts of two other minor 
threads and find their single equivalent; then take the single 
equivalent of the two first minor threads and that of the two 
second minor threads and find their single equivalent; this 
answer will then be the single equivalent of a four-ply com- 

12 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

pound thread. If the compound thread is more than, four ply, 
then this last equivalent is combined with the fifth minor thread 
and tiaeir single equivalent is found, etc. 

Example: Find the single equivalent of a cojnpound 
woolen thread composed of an 8 run wool, 1/20's cotton, 1/24's 
worsted and a 40/2 spun silk. Give answer in run wool system. 

Solution: The counts in the run wool system are 8 run wooi 
1/20's cotton = 20X840 --1,600 =10.5 run wool. 1/24's worsted 
= 24X560^1,600 = 8.4 run wool. -40/2 spun silk = 40 X 840 -- 
1,600 = 21 run wool. The single equivalent of the first two 
minor threads is 8X10.5^18.5 = 4.54+ run wool. The single 
equivalent of the two other minor threads is 8.4x21-^29.4 = 6 
run wool. Taking the single equivalent of the first two, minor 
threads and that of the last two, equals 4.54 X 6 h- 10.54 = 2.584 + . 
Answer: The single equivalent of a compound thread composed 
of an 8 run wool, 1/20's cotton, 1/24's worsted and 40/2 spun 
silk, is a 2.584 run wool. 

Second Method. 

Rule: Change the counts of all the minor threads to their 
single equivalent of the material in which the answer is required. 
Then take the highest count and use it as a dividend, dividing it 
by itself and then in turn by all the other counts; the quotients 
are then added up and the dividend (the highest count) is divided 
by their sum. This last quotient will be the answer. 

Example: Find the single equivalent count of a compound 
thread composed of a 1/60's worsted, 1/40's worsted, 40/2 spun 
silk, 8 run wool and 1/30's cotton, in the worsted system. 

Solution: The single equivalent counts of the various 
minor threads in the worsted system are 1/60's worsted, 1/40's 
worsted. 40/2 spun silk = 40x3^2 = 1/60's worsted. 8 run wool 
= 8X 1,600^560= l/22f's worsted, and 1/30's cotton = 30 X^ 
-^2 = l/45's worsted. The highest count of these five minor 
threads is 1/60's. Using this as the dividend and dividing it 
by itself and in turn bv the counts of all the other minor threads 
equals '60^60 =1 

60^40 =1.5 

60-^60 =1 

60 ^22f = 2.625 

60-45 =1.25 



The sum of quotients is 7.375 

60^7.375 = 8.136-. Answer: A compound thread composed 
of a 1/60's worsted, 1/40's worsted, a 40/2 spun silk, an 8 run wool 
and a 1/30's cotton, is equivalent to a 1/8.136's worsted. 

13 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

16. It is often necessary to find the size of a minor thread, 
which, together with a given minor thread, will form a compound 
thread of a required count. To find the count of the required 
minor thread, when the count of one minor thread and that of 
the compound thread desired are given. 

Rule: Multiply the single equivalent count of the com- 
pound thread by the count of the given minor thread and divide 
this product by the difference of the given counts. 

Example: A compound thread equivalent to a 2/40's 
worsted is to be made by twisting another worsted thread to a 
1/60's worsted. What size minor thread is required? 

Solution: 2/40's worsted = 40 -7-2= 1/20 's worsted is the 
single equivalent of the compound thread. 20x60^ (60-20) = 
20x60-^40 = 30. Answer: A 1/60's worsted together with a 
I/30's worsted will make a compound thread equivalent to a 
2/40's worsted. 

Example: Find the count of the minor thread required to 
be twisted with a 1/20's cotton. A compound thread equaling 
a 2/30 's cotton is to be made. 

Solution: 2/30's cotton = 30 ^ 2 = 1/15's cotton. 15 X 20 ^ 
(20-15) = 15X20^5 = 60. Aitswer. A 1/60's cotton thread 
must be twisted with that of a 1/20's cotton in order to pro- 
duce a compound thread equaling a 2/30's cotton. 

17. To find the count of a required minor thread, which, 
when twisted with a given minor thread of another material, 
will make a compound thread of a given count, the count and 
material of one minor thread and that of the compound thread 
being given. 

Rule: Change the given counts to their single equivalent in 
the system in which the answer is required. Then multiply the 
single equivalent of the minor thread by that of the compound 
thread and divide this product by the difference between the 
counts of the given minor and compound threads; the quotient 
will be the count of the required minor thread. 

Example: It is desired to twist a worsted thread with a 
40/2 spun silk yarn. The compound thread required is a 2/20's 
worsted. 

Solution: 40/2 spun silk = 40X3^2= 1/60's worsted. 
2/20's worsted = 20^2 = 1/10's worsted. 60 X 10- (60-10) = 
60X10^50=12. Answer: In order to make a compound 
thread equivalent to a 2/20's worsted, a 1/12's worsted thread 
must be twisted with a 40/2 spun silk. 

Example: It is desired to make a compound thread equiva- 
lent to a 2 run wool, by twisting a 32 cut woolen thread to another 
woolen thread which is graded according to the run system. 

14 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

Solution: 32 cut wool = 32 X 300 ^ 1 ,600 = 6 run wool. 6 X 
2^(6 — 2) = 6X2^4 = 3. Answer: To make a compound thread 
equaling a 2 run wool in combination with a 32 cut wool, a 3 run 
woolen yarn is required. 



15 



CHAPTER THREE. 
GRADING OF RAW-SILK YARNS. 

18. Dram, or English System. Raw-silk yarns are not spun 
but reeled direct from cocoons; various numbers of cocoons are 
reeled together, forming one thread. This results in threads 
of various weights and thicknesses. 

Raw or Gum Silks (as they are often termed) are graded 
according to the weight of a standard number of yards, the 
weight of the yarn indicating its count or size. 

In the English System (better known as the Dram System) , 
of grading raw-silk yarns, one thousand (1,000) is the standard 
number of yards of yarn weight; the Dram is the unit of weight 
used. The number of drams required to balance 1,000 yards of 
raw-silk yarn indicates the count or size of the yarn. For 
instance: If 1,000 yards of raw silk weigh four (4) drams, the 
silk will be graded as four-dram silk; if it should weigh six (6) 
drams, then it would be six-dram silk. From this it can be seen 
that the higher the number or count of the yarn, the coarser it will 
be; as a yarn of which 1,000 yards weigh four (4) drams must be 
finer than one of which 1,000 yards weigh six (6) drams. This 
method of grading is exactly the opposite of that used in the 
grading of other yarns, as for instance cotton: where the higher 
the count the finer the yarn. For, if in the cotton system SOX 
840 yards of a certain yarn should weigh one (1) pound, it must be 
finer than another cotton yarn of which 20X840 yards will 
weigh one (1) pound. 

In coarser numbers of dram silk, the standard hank of 
1,000 yards is broken up into hanks of 500 and 250 yards, as full 
hanks would be too bulky to be handled advantageously. In this 
case the yarns are graded in proportion to the full hank of 1,000 
yards. For instance: If a hank of 250 yards weighs four (4) 
drams, the yarn would be graded as 16-dram silk, as 250 is one- 
fourth of 1,000; 1,000 yards will weigh four times as much as 250. 
If a hank of 500 yards weighs six (6) drams, the yarn will be 
graded as 12-dram silk, as 500 is one-half of 1,000; 1,000 yards 
will weigh twice as much as 500. 

19. To find the number of yards per pound of any dram silk 
yarn, the count of the yarn being given. 

Rule: Multiply 256 (the number of drams per pound) by 
1,000 and divide this product by the count of the yarn. 

16 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

Example: Find the number of yards of yarn per pound of 
an 8-drani silk. 

Solution: 256 X 1,000 --8 = 32,000. Answer: 32,000 yards of 
8-dram silk per pound. 

Example: Find the number of yards of yarn per pound of a 
4-dram silk. 

Solution: 256X1,000-4 = 64,000. Answer: 4-dram silk 
has 64,000 yards per pound. 

20. To find the number of yards per ounce of any dram silk 
yarn, when the count of the yarn is given. 

Rule: Multiply 16 (the number of drams per ounce) by 
1,000 and divide the product by the count. 

Example: Find the number of yards per ounce of a 4-dram 
silk. 

Solution: 16x1,000^4 = 4,000. Answer: 4,000 yards per 
ounce of 4-dram silk. 

Example: Find the number of yards per ounce of a 1.5- 
dram silk. 

Solution: 16X 1,000^ 1.5= 10, 666|. .4H5w^r.- 10,666| yards 
per ounce of 1.5-dram silk. 

2 1 . To find the single equivalent count of any dram silk yarn 
in another system, when the count of the silk yarn is given. 

Rule: Multiply 256 X 1,000 and divide the product by the 
count of the silk yarn. This gives the number of yards per pound. 
Divide the number of yards of silk, per pound, by the standard 
number, of the material, in which the answer is required. 

Example: Find the single equivalent in the cotton system 
of a 16-dram silk. 

Solution: 256x1,000-^16=16,000 vards per pound, and 
16,000^840=19.097+. Answer: 1/19's cotton is the single 
equivalent to a 16-dram silk. 

Example: Find the single equivalent in worsted to a 10- 
dram silk. 

Solution: 256x1,000-^10 = 25,600 yards per pound, and 
25,600^560 = 45.71 + . Answer: A 1/45. 7's worsted is the 
equivalent to a 10-dram silk. 

22. To find the equivalent count of any yarn from any system 
in the dram silk system, when the count and material of the 
yarn are given. 

Note: There are quite a number of rules by which the 
eqrivalent count in the dram system may be found, the shortest, 
however, is this one. 

Rule: Find the number of yards per pound of the given 

17 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

count, then divide the number of yards of 1-dram silk per pound 
by the nrmber cf yards per pound of the given count. (There 
are 256,000 yards per pound of 1-dram silk.) 

Example: Find the equivalent count in the dram silk 
svstem to a 1/120's cotton. 

Sohiiion: 120X840=100,800 yards per pound. 256,000 
^100,800 = 2.5399- . Ansn^er: A 2.54- dram silk is the 
equivalent to a 1/120's cottcn. 

Example: Find the equivalent in the dram silk system to 
a 1/60 's worsted. 

Solution: 560X60 = 33,600 vards per pound. 256,000- 
33,600 = 7.619 + . Answer: The equivalent to a 1/60's worsted 
is a 7.6 + dram silk. 

23. Denier or Continental System. In this system the same 
basis is followed as in the dram system; i.e., the count of the 
yarn is based upon the weight of a certain amount (length) of 
yarn, the weight indicating its size or count. The difference 
between the dram and denier system lies in the unit of weights 
and measures used. For the dram system the English yard and 
dram are used, while the denier system employs the French 
Aunes and Denier. In this case the standard number of yards 
of yarn weight is 400 aunes = 476 metres = 520.56 yards; the 
weight of 400 aunes in deniers indicates the size or count of the 
yarn. Therefore, if 400 aunes of any raw-silk yarn weigh 40 
deniers. the yarn will be classed as 40-denier silk, etc. 

24. To find the number of yards per pound of any denier silk, 
when the count of the yarn is given. 

Rule: Multiply 8,540.16 by 520.56 (the standard number 
of yards for the denier system), and divide this product by the 
count. 

Xote: There are 8,540.16 deniers per pound avoirdupois. 

Example: Find the number of yards per pound of a 36- 
denier silk. 

Solution: 8,540.16x520.56 = 4,445,665.6896 vards per 
pound of 1-denier silk. 4,445,665.6896-36=123,490.7+. 
Answer: One pound of 36-denier silk contains 123.490.7 
yards. 

Example: Find the ntimber of yards per pound of a 40- 
denier silk. 

Solution: 8,540.16X520.56-40=111,141.64 + . Answer: 
There are 111,141.64+ yards per pound of 40-denier silk. 

25. To find the number of yards per ounce of any denier silk, 
when the count of the yarn is given. 

18 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

Rule: Multiply the number of deniers per ounce by 520.56, 
and divide this product by the count. 

Note: There are 533.76 deniers per ounce. 

Example: Find the number of yards per ounce of a 32- 
denier silk. 

Solution: 533.76x520.56 = 277,854.1056 yards of 1-den- 
ier silk per ounce. 277,854.1056^32 = 8,682.9408. Answer: 
8,682.94+ yards of 32-denier silk weigh one ounce. 

Example: Find the number of yards per ounce of a 40- 
denier silk. 

Solution: 533.76X520.56^40 = 6,946.35 + . Answer: 6,- 
946. 35 + yards of 40-denier silk weigh one ounce. 

26. To find the equivalent count in the denier system, to a 
given count in the dram system. 

Rule: Multiply the equivalent count to 1-dram silk in the 
denier system (17.366) by the count. 

Xote: 1 dram = 33.36 deniers. 1 metre = 39.37 inches. 
470 metres = 18,740.12 inches = 520.56 yards. There are 256,000 
yards per pound of 1-dram silk. There are 4,445,665.69 — yards 
per pound of 1 -denier silk. 1-dram silk= 17.366 denier silk. 

Example: Find the equivalent count of a 4-dram silk in the 
denier system. 

Solution: 17.36(5X4 = 69.464. Answer: 69.5— denier silk 
is equivalent to a 4-dram silk. 

Example: Find the eq^iivalent count of a 2-dram silk in the 
denier system. 

Solution: 17.366X2 = 34.732. Answer: 34.7+ denier is 
the equivalent of 2-dram silk. 

27. To find the equivalent count in the dram system to a 
given count in the denier system, the count of the yarn being 
given. 

Rule: Divide the given count by the equivalent count of 
one-dram silk. 

Example: Find the equivalent to a 46-denier silk in the 
dram system. 

Solution: 46 h- 17.366 = 2.648 + . Answer: 2.65— dram is 
equivalent of 46-denier silk. 

Example: Find the equivalent count in the dram system to 
an 18-denier silk. 

Solution: 18^-17.366=1.0365 + . Answer: 1.04 dram is 
equivalent to IS-denier silk. 

28. To find the equivalent count in any system (excepting 
dram silkj to a given count in the denier system. 

19 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

Rule: Divide the number of yards per pound of 1 -denier 
silk (4,445,665.6896) by the given count and divide this quotient 
by the standard number of the system in which the answer is 
required. 

Example: Find the equivalent count of a 60-denier silk in 
the cotton system. 

Solution: 4,445,665.6896 - 60 - 74,094.428 + . 74,094.428 
^ 840 = 88.2 + . Answer: 1/88. 2's cotton is the equivalent of 60- 
-denier silk. 

Example: Find the equivalent count in the spun silk 
-system of an 80-denier silk. 

Solution: 4,445,665.6896 - 80 = 55,570.82 + . 55,570.82 - 
S40 = 66.16 — . Answer: 1/66 spun silk is equivalent of an 80- 
denier silk. 

29. To find the equivalent count in the denier system of any 
given count of another system (excepting raw silk). 

Rule: Divide the number of yards per pound of 1 -denier 
silk by the number of yards per pound of the yarn in question. 

Example: Find the equivalent count to an 80/2 spun silk 
in the denier system. 

Solution: 80/2 = 1/80's. 840 X 80 = 67,200. 4,445,665.- 
6896-^67,200 = 66.156-. Answer: 66.156- denier silk is the 
equivalent to 80/2 spun silk. 

Example: Find the equivalent count to a 1/120's worsted in 
■the denier system. 

Solution: 560 X 120 = 67,200. 4,445,665.6896 - 67,200 = 
•66.156 — . Answer: 66.156— denier silk is the equivalent to a 
1/120's worsted. 

Note: Raw-silk 3'arns are very susceptible to moisture, which 
varies the count of the yarns considerably, as in a dry place they 
weigh considerabh^ less than when they are exposed to damp- 
ness. On this account the minimum and maximum count of a 
silk yarn are generally given when graded according to the denier 
system, thus: 36/40 denier, meaning that the count is some- 
where between 36 and 40 deniers under normal conditions, but 
that it may be as fine as 36 's denier in a dry place and as coarse 
•(heavy) as 40 's denier w^hen exposed to dampness. 

The counts of yarns graded according to the dram silk 
system, are given in one figure only, thus : 2-dram silk, etc. 



20 



CHAPTER FOUR. 
CALCULATIONS PERTAINING TO CLOTH ANALYSIS. 

30. Samples. The cloth to be analysed, or the Sample, is 
mostly a small piece ranging from one (1) square inch to, perhaps, 
forty (40) square inches and more. The smaller samples are of 
course more frequent than those larger, the average size of 
samples being about twelve (12) square inches. From this it can 
be seen that in calculating yarns and cloths from a sample, the 
figures, which must all be obtained from the cloth, are neces- 
sarily small and figures must be carried to three and four decimal 
places in order to receive the best results. To better illustrate 
this idea, supposing that a thread has been removed from a sam- 
ple, the thread measuring three and one-eighth inches (3|-), 
now supposing that 100 of these threads have been removed, 
they would give a total length of 3.125X100 = 312.5 inches of 
yarn. If the fraction (.125 or \) had been dropped, which is 
only one-eighth of an inch, in 100 threads this one-eighth of an 
inch would amount to twelve and one-half inches (12. 5'^, which 
amounts to four threads. Therefore, accuracy in measurement 
is necessary in order to obtain a correct anah'sis of any textile 
fabric. 

The measurements taken from a sample are its width and 
length, and the length of the threads after being removed from 
the cloth and straightened out. The number of warp threads 
(ends) per inch, and number of filling threads (picks) per inch are 
then counted. 

All calculations, when analysing a sample, are based upon 
one yard (in length) of the goods. The widths vary, as nearly 
every class of textile fabrics is manufactured in different 
widths. For instance: Worsteds and woolens (broad goods) are 
generally made in six-quarter widths, equivalent to 54 inches. 
In some States these goods are made 56 inches wide, but they 
come on the market anywhere from 54 to 58 and 60 inches. 
Velvets and plushes come as narrow as 18 inches, and cott3n 
goods generally average 40 inches. 

31. The Take-Up in Weaving. The warp being raised 
and lowered during weaving, and the filling threads passing 
through the shed, cause both warp and filling to contract in 
length while they are woven into a fabric. The lost length can 
always be recovered upon removing the threads from the goods, 

21 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

i.e., if the goods have not been shrunk previously. The take-up 
of the fining is harder to determine than that of the warp, on 
account of the goods having a tendency to shrink in width due 
to the softness of the filling. 

To find the percentage of take-up in warp during weaving, 
from a small sample. 

Rule: Measure the length of sample, thus obtaining the 
cloth length of the ends; then remove an end, straighten it out 
and measure, thus obtaining the straight-length. Subtract the 
cloth length from the straight length, thus obtaining the take- 
up in inches. 

Multiply the take-up in inches by one hundred (100) and 
divide this product by the straight length. 

Note: When straightening the threads, care must be taken 
that they are straightened and not stretched. 

Example: Find the percentage of take-up of a warp thread 
which measures 4.125 inches in the cloth and straightens out to 
4.5 inches. 

Solution: 4.5 4. 125 = . 375 inches is the take-up in inches. 
.375X 100-f-4.5 = 8^. Answer: The take-up in weaving, of a 
warp of which an end straightens from 4^ to 4^ inches, is 

8i%. 

Example: Find the percentage of take-up of an end which 
straightens from 8 to 8f inches. 

Solution: 8f - 8= f inches, take-up in inches. tXl00^8| 
= 7^f . Answer: The take-up of an end straightening from 8 to 
8f inches is 1H%. 

Note: It is always best to do these examples in common 
fractions as dropping decimal places, in the percentage, amounts 
to considerable when figuring a whole warp. 

32. To find the total number of yards of warp yarn in one 
yard of cloth, including the percentage of the take-up, when the 
number of ends per inch, percentage of take-up, and the finished 
width of the goods, are given. 

The number of ends per inch are counted in the finished 
cloth, as the sample from which the analysis is made must neces- 
sarily be a piece cut from finished cloth. As nearly all goods are 
wider in the loom, than they are finished, there are more ends 
per inch in the finished goods than in the loom, or reed width. 

Rule: Multiply the number of ends per inch by the width, 
in inches, of the fabric; then multiply this product by one 
hundred (100) and divide the product by one hundred (100) 
minus the percentage of take-up (100 percentage of take-up). 

Example: A sample contains 72 ends per inch, the goods is 
54 inches finished and the warp has a take-up of 8% during 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

weaving; how many yards of warp yarn is there in one yard of 
cloth? 

Solution: 72 X 54 = 3,888 ends in the cloth. 3,888 X 100 ^ 
(100-8) = 3,888 X 100-92 = 4,226^3. Answer: 4,226 yards 
(4,226Tf3 yards), is contained in one yard of the goods. 

Explanation: Every end in the goods, of one yard of cloth, 
is the length of one yard plus the take-up. As the ends were 
the original length before they were woven into the fabric, the 
length of the goods (one yard) is the difference obtained after 
subtracting the take-up from the original length of the warp 
(ends). After having multiplied the number of ends per inch by 
the width of the fabric, the number of ends in the goods has been 
found, also the number of yards of warp yarn in one yard of 
cloth, minus the percentage of take-up. Therefore this product, 
the number of ends per inch times the width of fabric, is only a 
certain percentage of all the yarn contained in one yard of the 
goods. In case of the above example it was 92% of the total 
amount. 3,888 vards being 92%, 1%^ would be 3,888^92 = 
42.26087- yards, which makes 100%, amount to 42.26087X100 
= 4,226.087 — , or 4,2267f3 yards. Multiph^ing the number of 
ends in warp by 100, before dividing, does away with fractions. 

Example: Find the total number of yards of warp yarn in 
one yard of cloth having 32 ends per inch, 36 inches wide, and a 
take-up of 12%. 

Solution: 32x36=1,152 ends in warp. 1,152x100^ 
(100"12) = 115,200--88=1,309tV- Answer: The above fabric has 
a total of l,309yV yards of warp yarn per yard of cloth. 

33. To find the total number of yards of filling yarn per yard 
of cloth, when the number of picks per inch and the width of 
warp in reed are given. 

Rule: Multiply the number of picks per inch by the width, 
in inches, of the warp in reed. 

Example: Find the number of yards of filling contained in 
one yard of cloth, 64 inches wide in the reed, having 36 picks per 
inch. 

Solution: 64x36 = 2,304. Answer: The above fabric con- 
tains 2,304 yards of filling per yard of cloth. 

Explanation: When calculating the amount of filling con- 
tained in one yard of cloth, it is easier to first find the loom 
(reed) width of the goods by removing a pick from the sample, 
obtaining its cloth and straight length, and then by proportion 
finding the loom width. If, for instance, a pick is found to measure 
8 inches in the cloth and 8f inches straightened, the fabric 
being 54 inches finished, the proportion would be 8:8|::54:x 
= 8f X54 4-8 = 59yV inches, width of warp in loom. As goods 

23 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

have a tendency to shrink in width this method of finding 
the loom width is not always practical; a vast amount of practice 
is necessary to always obtain the right width of fabric in loom 
from a finished sample. 

Multiplying the number of picks per inch by the width of 
fabric in loom, gives the number of inches of filling per inch of 
cloth; in 36 inches (one yard) of cloth, there will be 36 times as 
many inches of filling, or, taking the above example, 36X64X 
36 = 82,944 inches of filling per yard of cloth. Reducing this 
number of inches to yards, it must be divided by 36, thus bring- 
ing it back to 36X64 = 2,304, or multiply the number of picks per 
inch by the width of warp in reed. 

The width of warp in reed is used, because every pick that 
enters the goods is the length of the width of warp in reed. The 
pick is beaten-in before the take-up in width is noticed and while 
the warp is spread to its full width by the reed. 

Example: Find the number of yards of filling per yard of 
cloth of a fabric which has 67^ picks per inch, and is 42 inches 
wide in the loom. 

Solution: 67^X42 = 2,835. Answer: The above fabric 
contains 2,835 yards of filling per yard of cloth. 

34. To find the number of yards of each kind of yarn used, 
per yard of cloth, from a small sample. 

Rule: By counting, find the total number of ends per 
pattern; then find the number of ends of each color or material in 
pattern. Divide the total number of yards of warp, yarn per 
yard of cloth by the number of ends per pattern, then multiply 
this qtiotient, in turn, by the number of ends of each color or 
material in the pattern. The different answers obtained will be 
the number of yards of each color or material per yard of cloth. 

Example: A sample is found to have 42 ends per inch, the 
goods are 54 inches finished (width) and have 10% take-up. 
The sample has the following color pattern — 2 ends of 2/40's 
blue worsted, and 4 ends of 2/40's black worsted. How many 
yards of yarn of each color are there per yard of cloth? 

Solution: 2/40's blue worsted 2 ends 
2/40's black worsted 4 " 



Total number of ends per pattern 6 

42 X 54 X 100 -^ (100 — 10) = 2,520 yards of warp yarn per yard of 
cloth. 

2,520^6 = 420. 420X2= 840 vards of blue 
420X4=1680 " " black. 



Total number of yards 2,520 

24 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

Answer: These goods contain of 2/40's rblue worsted 840 
yards, and of 2/40's black worsted 1,680 yards. 

When figuring filling this same rule is used. After the 
number of yards of filling per 3^ard of cloth is found, the number 
of yards of each kind of filling (color or material) is found in 
exactly the same manner. 

Example: Find the number of yards of each kind of filling 
per yard of cloth, from a sample which has 44 picks per inch, is 
54 inches finished and 58 inches wide in the reed. The filling 
used is 2/48's worsted throughout, and the pattern is 

Blue 3 picks 
Black 3 picks. 
Solution: 2/40's blue 3 picks 

2/40's black 3 " 



Total number of picks per pattern 6 

44 X 58 = 2,552 yards of filling per yard of cloth. 
2,552 - 6 = 425i 425^ X 3 = 1 ,276 vards of blue 
425^X3 = 1,276 " " black 



Total number of yards 2,552 

Ajtswer: There are 1,276 yards of blue and 1,276 yards of 
black filling per yard of cloth of the above description. 

35. Another method used for finding the number of yards of 
each kind (color or material) of warp yarn per yard of cloth, is 
given in the following rule. 

Rule: Divide the number of ends in the w^arp by the number 
of ends per pattern, thus finding the number of patterns in the 
w^arp; then multiply the number of patterns in the warp by the 
number of ends of each color (or material), thus finding the 
number of ends of each color in the warp. Then multiply the 
number of ends of each kind of yarn by 100 (taking one kind of 
yarn after the other), and divide the various products by 100 
minus the percentage of take-up. 

Note: This rule gives better results if large patterns are 
concerned, but is more lengthy and complicated. Filling 
should never be figured by this rule, as weaving one yard after 
the other w411 make an average which will be obtained by the 
use of the other rule. 

When the number of patterns in the warp do not come out 
even, which is often the case with large patterns, then the first 
ends of the pattern are used in place of the fraction. 

Example: Find the number of yards of each kind of warp 
yarn per yard of cloth from a sample which has 72 ends per inch^ 

25 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

is 54 inches finished, having 12% take-up, and the following 
pattern: 2/40 's cotton, black |1 1 11 2 2^-" . . i ... 
2/60's worsted, olive 1 1 

2/60 's worsted, twist 1 1 

2/60's worsted, red 1 1 



2 2 

9 



1 1 I 48 

1 I 22 

31 24 

i 2 



8 



6 



Total number of ends per pattern 96 

Solution: 72X54 = 3,888 ends in warp. 3,888 --96 = 40.5 
patterns in warp. There are 40 whole patterns and h pattern 
in the warp. Taking the 40 patterns first, and multiplying them 
by the number of ends of each kind of yarn and then adding the 
number of ends of each kind of yarn, in the first half of the 
pattern, to the respective products, gives: 

40 X 48 = 1 ,920 + 26=1 ,946 ends of black cotton 
40X22= 880+11= 891 " " olive worsted 
40X24= 960+9= 969 " " twist worsted 
40X 2= 80+ 2= 82 " " red worsted 



Total 
1,946X100 -(100-12) 
891 X 100 -- (100-12) = 1,0121 
969 X 100- (100-12) = 1,101^^ 



82X100 -(100-12) 



3,888 ends in warp. 

■■ 2,21 ly\ yards of black cotton 
" olive worsted 
" twist worsted 
" red worsted 



93^^*2 



Total 4,418y-i " " yarn per yard. 

Answer: The above goods contain 2,21 lir yards of 
2/40's black cotton, 1,012' yards of 2/60's olive worsted, 
l,10l2^ yards of 2/60's twisted worsted, and 932*2 yards of 2/60's 
red worsted, per vard of cloth; a total of 4,41 8tt vards. 

Proof: 3,888 ends in the warp, 12% take-up.' 3,888X100- 
(100 - 12) =4,41811 yards of warp yarn per yard of cloth. 

36. To find the count of any yarn from a small sample. 

Rule: Measure the straight length of a thread which has 
heen removed from the sample, and multiply this length by the 
number of threads removed (at least 100 inches of yarn should be 
removed). Weigh the removed yarn carefully, with grain 
weights. Multiply the number of inches of yarn w^eight by 7,000 
(the number of grains per pound) and divide this product by the 
weight of the yarn; this gives the number of inches of yarn per 
pound. Divide the number of inches of yarn per pound by 36 
(reducing inches to yards), and divide this product by the 
standard number of the yarn in question. [If the yarn is raw 
silk, then the number of yards of 1-dram silk (or 1-denier silk), 
per pound is divided by the number of yards per pound of the 
varn in question]. 

26 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

Example: If 148 inches of worsted yarn weigh 1.4 grains, 
what will be its count ? 

Solution: 148X7,000-^1.4-740,000 inches of yarn per 
pound. 740,000 -^ 36 = 20, 555|- yards of yarn per pound. 
20,555| -^ 560 = 36.7 + . Answer .• 1/36. 7's worsted is the count 
of the yarn. 

Example: Find the count in the dram system of a raw silk 
varn of which 240 inches weigh i grain. 

Solution: 240X7,000^1=1,920,000 inches of varn per 
pound. 1,920,000 -^ 36 = 53,333-^ yards of yarn per pound. 
256,000 -^53,333i = 4.8. Answer: 4.8 dram silk is the count 
of this raw-silk yarn. 

37. To find the weight of one yard of cloth in ounces from a 
small sample, when the size of the sample, in inches, and the 
width of the finish fabric are given. 

Rule: After trimming the sample accurately, find the length 
of two of its adjoining sides in inches and multiply the length of 
one side by that of the other, thus obtaining the number of 
square inches in the sample. Weigh the sample with grain 
weights. Multiply the width, in inches, of the finished goods by 
36 (the number of inches in one yard), thus obtaining the number 
of square inches in one yard of cloth. 

Divide the number of square inches per yard of cloth by the 
number of square inches in the sample, and multiply this quotient 
by the weight of the sample, thus obtaining the weight of one 
yard of cloth in grains; divide this number of grains by 437.5 
(number of grains per pound avoirdupois), the quotient will be 
the weight of one yard of cloth in grains. 

Example: A piece of woolen goods, 4 by 3 inches, weighs 60 
grains, what will be the weight of one yard of cloth, 54 inches 
wide ? 

Solution: 4x3=12 square inches in sample. 54x36 = 
1 ,944 square inches in one yard of cloth. (1 ,944 h- 12) X 60 = 9,720 
grains, weight of one yard of cloth. 9,720-^437.5 = 22.217 + 
ounces. Answer: The weight of one yard of cloth is 22.2 + 

ounces. 

Example: Find the weight of one yard of cotton sheeting 
48 inches wide. A sample, 4 by 4 inches, weighs 10.5 grains. 

Solution: 4x4= 16 square inches, size of sample. 48X36 = 
1,728 square inches per yard of the goods. (1,728-^ 16) X 10.5 = 
1,134 grains, weight of one yard cf the sheeting. 1,134-^437.5 = 
2.592 ounces. Answer: Qne yard of this sheeting will weigh 
2.6 - ounces. 



CHAPTER FIVE, 
ANALYSIS OF CLOTH. 

38. Points to be looked for when Analysing a Textile Fabric. 

L Find the material, or materials, of which the sample is 
composed. 

2. Find which side of the sample is the face and which the 
back. 

3. Find which system of threads is the warp and which 
the filling. 

4. Find the weight, per yard, of the finished goods. 

5. Find the take-up, of warp, during weaving. 

6. Find the width of warp in reed. 

7. Find the finished count of warp and filling yarns. 

8. Find the loom counts of the warp and filling yarns, in 
case the goods have lost in weight during finishing. 

9. Find the number of ends and picks per inch in the 
finished goods. 

10. Find the color pattern of warp and filling. 

11. Find the amount of warp yarn and amount of filling 
yarn required, in ounces, to weave one yard of cloth. 

12. Find the amount of weighting matter in the sample. 

13. Find the weight of one yard of cloth from the loom. 

14. Find the weave. 

Note: These points have been given in the rotation in 
which, one after the other, they can readily be obtained; as some 
points are necessary to establish others, it is best for the student 
to adhere to this rotation. 

38a. Explanation of Points 1, 2 and 3. 

la. Materials, in some fabrics, may be told apart by the 
naked eye, and in many classes of goods made of only one 
material throughout, it can readily be determined without any 
testing; as for instance in all cotton goods, such as sheetings, 
shirtings, bed-spreads, etc., and some all wool and all silk goods. 
In some fabrics it is next to impossible to tell what material they 
are made of, in which cases many tests are often necessary before 
it can be determined. 

There are two classes of tests, a physical and b chemical. 
To find whether a fabric is composed of all wool, the easiest 
test to apply is the physical, i.e., by burning the fabric, or separat. 

28 



i 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

ing threads from it, and examining the construction of the differ- 
ent fibres. 

Cottons. The threads have a smooth appearance and are 
composed of short fibres. Under a microscope the different 
fibres have a twisted, ribbon-like appearance, the fibres lying 
parallel side by side. Upon burning, they burn with a flash 
and leave but little ashes, which gives off a slight, pleasant odor. 

Wool. These threads have a rough appearance and are 
made up of fibres which are cylindrical in shape and inclined to 
curliness. The fibres do not lie parallel side by side in the 
threads, but are rather in a jumbled-up condition, running in 
every direction; they stick off from the threads, thus making 
woolen threads appear fuzzy. They burn slowly, leaving a hard 
mass for ashes which has a strong, disagreeable odor. Woolen 
threads are more elastic than cotton threads, which stretch but 
little. 

Worsted. These threads are made of the same raw material 
as woolen threads (wool) but are smoother in appearance and the 
fibres lie more evenly and parallel in the threads. This is due to 
the extra combing, gilling, and drawing, material, destined to be 
made into worsted threads, undergoes before it is spun into yarn. 
The fibres are usually of a longer staple than those used for 
woolen threads, as it is only within a short time that short- 
fibred wools have been used for worsted yarns. Cheviot yarns 
(mostly w^orsted) are very hairy. 

Cotton, Wool and Silk. It is often the case that goods are 
composed of both woolen (worsted) and cotton threads, or that 
the threads are made up of part wool and part cotton. In that 
case it is necessary to apply one of the many chemical tests in 
use. With the help of these tests the percentage of each material 
contained in the fabric can readily be found. The test most 
readily applied for fabrics which are to be of either all wool, or 
all silk, but are suspected of containing cotton : this can readily be 
determined by placing the sample in a concentrated solution of 
caustic soda or potash; the wool or silk fibres will dissolve, while 
the cotton or other vegetable fibres will remain. The percentage 
of cotton contained in the goods can be found by weighing the 
sample before placing it in the solution of caustic soda, and by 
again weighing it (if any is left) after it has been thoroughly 
dried. The weighing should always be done when the sample is 
thoroughly dry, i.e., at about 120 degrees F. The percentage 
can then be found by multiplying the weight of the sample, after 
it has been treated, by 100 and dividing this product by the 
original weight of the sample. 

Silk and Wool. Wool, hair and fur are blackened by heating 

29 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

with a solution of plumbite of soda; the silk, which does not con- 
tain sulphur, will remain unchanged. 

Cotton and Linen. A strong potash solution will dye linen 
a deep yellow, while it will barely stain cotton. A mixed cloth, 
after being treated in this solution, would be striped or spotted. 

2a. The face of the goods has a higher finish than its 
back, the color pattern is more noticeable (excepting in cloak- 
ings and steamer rugs), and has a smoother and softer feeling. 

2b. When a fabric is made of two qualities of yarn it is 
customary to throw the cheaper one on the back of the goods. 

2c. The twill line (if there is one visible), generally runs to 
the right on the face, and, if one side of the goods appears to be 
woven closer than the other, the closer woven side will be the face. 

2d. In serges, etc., the face only is sheared. 

3a. The warp yarn is usually of a harder twist than the 
filling. 

3b. Prominent stripes run in the direction of the warp, 
and sometimes reed marks are noticeable w^hich also run in the 
direction of the warp. 

3c. The nap runs in the direction of the warp, also the 
selvage. 

3d. If one system of threads is many times heavier than 
the other, the heavier threads are usually the filling. When it is 
found that one system of threads is two-ply and the other single, 
the single yarn is the filling. 

3e. If one system of threads is all wool and the other 
cotton, the cotton, in most cases, is the warp. 

39. Explanation of Points 4 to 8, inclusive. 

(3. See Section 33, Chapter IV, Book II. 

7. The results obtained, when following rule given under 
Section 36, Chapter IV, of Book II, are the counts of the yarns 
after they have gone, in the shape of a woven fabric, through the 
finishing processes. 

S. Goods which are heavily fulled, gigged and sheared, 
have a certain amount of loss during finishing. They lose 
throrgh the washing, which removes oils and other fatty matters 
from the goods, and shearing and gigging, which cause a lot of 
loose fibres to fall to the floor, etc. This loss is often made up 
by the fulling, which decreases the goods in length at times as 
much as 10% and over. The shrinkage in width of a fabric does 
not increase its weight (the weight of one yard), as there is noth- 
ing to replace the shrunken parts; but in length it is different. 
For instance: if a piece of goods shrinks from ten to eight yards, 
all the material, which at first made up ten yards of goods, is now 
contained in but eight, etc. 

30 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

If goods lose, through the loss of oils, 8% during finishing, 
the finished count of the yarn must necessarily be 8% finer than 
the loom count. To find the loom count from a given finished 
count the following rule will apply. 

Rule: Divide the number of yards per pound of the finished 
count by 100 plus the percentage of loss during finishing, and 
multiply this quotient by 100. Then divide this product by the 
standard number of the yarn in question. 

Example: A piece of goods loses 12% in weight during 
finishing, the finished count is 1| run wool; what is the loom count? 

Solution: 1,600X1.125=1,800 vards per pound. 1,800-- 
112 = 16.071 + . 16.071X100 = 1,607.1 yards per pound for the 
loom count. 1,607^1,600=1.004 + . Answer: One run wool 
is the loom count. 

40. Explanation for Points 9, 10 and 11. 

9. The ends and picks, in most cases, can be counted by 
means of a pick glass and picking-out needle. Where they can 
not be counted in this manner, it is a good plan to find the 
number of ends and picks in one repeat of the weave (if the 
weave is visible), and then count the number of repeats of the 
weave, per inch, and multiply the number of ends in one repeat 
of weave by the number of repeats per inch. 

A better way still is to fringe the edges so that the ends and 
picks will protrude. Cut these protruding ends and picks so that 
one inch (in width) of themi remains. Count the number of ends 
and picks left protruding. 

If this method can not be employed, then trim your sample 
to one square-inch, remove the threads, keeping ends and picks 
separate, and count them. 

10. The color pattern may be counted the same time the 
number of ends and picks, per inch, are found; the same methods 
3an successfully be employed. 

11. The amount of warp and filling yarns, in ounces, re- 
quired per yard of cloth, is found from the number of yards of 
y^arn per yard of cloth, the rule for which has been given under 
Section 34, and Section 35, of Chapter IV. To find the weight, in 
Dunces, of these various amounts of yarn the rule is given under 
Section 7, Chapter I. 

41. Explanation of Points 12, 13 and 14. 

12. Weighting matter consists of various materials, de- 
Dending upon the class of goods to be weighted. Cotton goods 
ire weighted with chalks, talkum, fuller's earth, etc., while 
ivoolen goods are made heavier by flocking, i.e., waste flocks of 
ivool, made during the shearing of other goods, are filled into the 

31 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

cloth which is sewed into the shape of a bag. After the flocks 
have been distributed evenly, the goods are fulled. During 
this process the fibres of the flocks will combine with those pro- 
truding from the fabric. This combination is not very per- 
manent, as the flocks wear off in the course of time. Silks are 
weighted by means of iron, zinc, lead and dye-stuffs, which are 
added in solutions. 

The exact amount of weighting matter used can, in many 
instances, be determined only by an exhaustive chemical analysis. 
In the case of cotton goods it can often be determined by simply 
washing a sample, weighing same before and after, and then 
finding the percentage of weighting matter by the loss of weight 
the sample shows. When woolen goods are weighted with 
flocks, the amount of weighting can be determined reasonably 
correct by scraping the back of the goods with a dull-edged 
instrument, weighing the sample before and after. The amount 
of weighting materials in silk can be determined only by chemical 
analysis, which can not be taken up within the scope of this book. 

13. When finding the weight of one yard of cloth from the 
loom it is necessary to use the loom counts (if they differ from 
those in the finished goods), for figuring the weights. Allowances 
must also be made for the shrinkage of fabric in length, and loss 
of weight in scouring (washing) and shearing. 

14. After all the weights, number of ends per inch and 
number of picks per inch, have been found, then the remainder of 
the sample is used for finding the weave. 

This is best accomplished by removing a sufficient number 
of picks so that the ends- have a fringe of about one-half inch. 
Warp threads are also to be removed, sufficient to give the picks 
a fringe of about one-half to three-quarters of an inch. Then take 
hold of the picks between the thumb and first finger and bring 
the sample over the first finger and under the second. A pick is 
then somewhat brought forward into the fringed ends, the back of 
the first finger serving as a rest for the picking-out needle and a 
backing for the sample. The pick is followed and note is taken 
of the number of ends which pass over and these passing under 
it; these ups and downs of the ends are recorded on some squared 
or point designing paper. After the first pick has been followed 
for more than one repeat of the weave, it is removed and the next 
pick taken, etc. 

At times it is possible to obtain the weave by means of the 
pick glass, and again it is possible to read it with the naked eye 
straight from the sample. If the fabric is a double cloth of very 
high texture, it is best to remove all the back threads, after which 
the face weave may be found, then, from another piece of the 
sample, remove the face threads and find the back weave. The 
stitching can be placed at the most convenient points. 

32 



CHAPTER SIX. 
WARP CALCULATIONS. 

42. Preparing the Warp. Those threads running lengthwise 
in goods are termed the Warp; the separate threads being 
termed Warp Threads and are generally referred to as Ends. 
Any number of ends from about 400 to 12,000, and more, com- 
prise a warp. Warps are made in various ways, the process being 
different for nearly every kind of material or yarn used. The 
making, or Dressing, of warps consists of the measuring of the 
different ends so that all will be of the same length, and at the 
same time laying them side by side. 

Different warps have different numbers of ends per inch. 
The number of ends per inch is generally termed the Texture; in 
cotton and linen goods the number of ends per inch is generally 
termed the Sley. (In this book the term texture is used in 
preference to the term sley.) 

After the warp has been dressed it is placed on a beam, or 
warp beam, at a tight and even tension. After the beaming the 
different ends are drawn in separately through the eyes of the 
heddles, or wires, on the harness-frames. These harness-frames 
consist of two horizontal bars of wood, one on top and the other 
at the bottom, fastened together by two perpendicular strips of 
wood; two metal rods, one on top and a little below the top 
wooden bar and the other at the bottom and a little above the 
bottom wooden bar, run across this frame. On these metal rods, 
or shafts, the heddles are placed. At least two harness-frames 
are required in the process of weaving; from that up, any num- 
ber may be used to 30, and at times over. 

After the warp has been drawn-in, it is reeded, i.e., the ends 
are drawn through the reed. The reed consists of a series of 
wires running perpendicularly between two ribs; reeds are made 
with anywhere from 6 to 120 of these wires per inch (these are 
round outside numbers, coarser and finer reeds have been made 
and used) . The openings between the different wires are termed 
reed-splits or dents. Generally two, three, four, five, etc., ends 
are drawn into each one of these splits. Sometimes one end only 
is drawn into every reed-split; this, however, is not practical. 
After the entire warp has been reeded it is placed, warp, harness, 
reed and all, in the loom. 

43. To find *he number of ends in a warp, when the number 

33 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

of reed-splits per inch, number of ends per reed-split, and width 
of warp in reed (in inches) are given. 

Rule: Multiply the number of reed-splits per inch by the 
number of ends per reed-split, and this product by the number 
of inches in the width of warp in reed. 

Example: Find the number of ends in a warp which is 
reeded in a reed with 14 reed-splits per inch, 4 ends per reed- 
split and 64 inches wide. 

Note: The texture, or number of reed-splits per inch and 
number of ends per reed-split, is generally written 14x4; mean- 
ing that a reed with 14 dents per inch is used, each dent having 
4 ends. 14X4X64'' would be read: 14 reed, 4 ends per dent, 
and 64 inches wide. 

Solution: 14x4 = 56 ends per inch. 56X64 = 3,584 ends. 
Answer: 3,584 ends are in a warp which is reeded in a 14 reed, 
4 ends per dent, 64 inches wide. 

Example: Find the number of ends in a warp which is 
reeded 32X2X32''. 

Solution: 32X2 = 64 ends per inch. 64x32 = 2,048 ends. 
Answer: 2,048 ends in the warp. 

44. The Pattern. In weaving we consider two kinds of 
patterns, the weave pattern and the color pattern. The weave 
pattern is determined by the size of the weave, or the number of 
ends on which the weave repeats; the color pattern is determined 
by the colors used in the warp. The first of these patterns never 
interferes with the calculation of the warp, while the latter must 
always be considered. 

To find the number of ends in each color pattern, when the 
number of ends of each color, in rotation, is given. 

Rule: First, add all the ends of the different colors 
separately, then add the number of ends of each color together. 

Example: Find the number of ends per pattern in a warp 
which is dressed 2 ends of black, 2 ends of slate, 2 ends of black, 
2 ends of blue, 2 ends of black, 2 ends of slate, 1 end of black and 
1 end of red. 

Solution: In the pattern there are the following colors : 
Black 2 2 2 1 7 

Slate 2 2 4 

Blue 2 2 

Red 1 1 



Total 16 ends 

Answer: In the above pattern there are 7 ends of black, 4 ends 
of slate, 2 ends of blue and 1 end of red; together 16 ends per 
pattern. 

34 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 



Example: Find the number of ends in the following pattern, 
64 ends of green, 32 blue, 4 green, 2 yellow, 4 green, 2 yellow, 
4 green, 32 blue, 64 green, 8 blue, 3 brown, 8 blue, 3 brown and 8 
blue. 

Solution: In the pattern there are the following colors and 
ends of each color: 



Green 
Blue 
Yellow 
Brown 



64 4 
32 



4 64 
32 



3 3 



140 

88 
4 
6 



Total 238 ends 

Answer: In the above pattern there are 140 ends of green, 
88 ends of blue, 4 ends of yellow, and 6 ends of brown; making 
a total of 238 ends per pattern. 

45. To find the number of patterns in any warp, when the 
texture and width of warp in reed and the number of ends per 
pattern are given. 

Rule: Divide the number of ends in the warp by the number 
of ends per pattern. 

Example: Find the number of patterns in a warp which 
contains 6,720 ends, and has 32 ends per pattern. 

Solution: 6,720 ^ 32 = 210 patterns. Answer: 210 patterns 
are in the above warp. 

Example: Solve the following. A warp 24 X 3 X 68'' has the 
following color pattern : 



2/36 w^orsted, black 
4 run wool, black 
2/36 worsted, slate 
4 run wool, slate 



1 



4 times 
How many patterns in warp ? 

Solution: 24 X 3 = 72 ends per inch, 
warp. 

Black worsted 1 1 

Run wool, black 1 
Slate worsted 1 

Run wool, slate 1 



72X68 = 4,896 ends in 

9 

4 

3 

1 2 



4 times Total 18 ends 

4,896 -^ 18 = 272 patterns. Answer: In the above warp there are 
4,896 ends, 18 ends per pattern, making it a total of 272 patterns 
in the warp. 

35 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

46. To find the total number of ends of each color in any 
warp, when the number of ends in the warp and the number of 
ends of each color per pattern, are given. 

Rule: Divide the number of ends in the warp by the number 
of ends per pattern, and multiply the quotient by the number of 
ends of each color in the pattern. 

Note: If there are a number of ends over, when finding the 
number of patterns in the warp, then the number of patterns in 
the warp are multiplied by the number of ends of each color, 
regardless to the remaining ends; and then as many ends from 
the beginning of the pattern as there were ends left over, are 
added to their respective colors. 

Example: Find the number of ends of each color required to 
dress a warp 28 X 3 X 30'', with the following color pattern : 

Black 8 8 16 

48 



Blue 24 24 

Red 2 

Green 24 



4 
24 



Total 92 ends per pattern 

Solution: 28 X 3 = 84 ends per inch. 84 X 30 = 2,520 ends in 
warp. 

2,520^92= 27 patterns and 36 ends over. 
16x27 = 432 ends of black in 27 patterns, 
48X27=1,296 " " blue " " 
4X27= 108" " red " " 
24X27= 648 " " green " " 

To this must be added 36 ends which are in the warp above 
the 27 patterns. These 36 ends are taken from the beginning, 
or front of the pattern, thus: to the 432 ends of black 8 ends are 
added (these 8 ends being the first in the pattern) making it 440 
ends of black, and leaving 28 of the 36 ends left over (36 — 8 = 28). 
To the 108 ends of red 2 more are added (these two ends being 
the tenth and eleventh ends in the pattern) making it 110 ends 
of red, and leaving 26 of the 36 ends left over (36-8-2 = 26). To 
the 1,296 ends of blue 24 more are added (these 24 ends are the 
twelfth to thirty-fourth ends, inclusive, of the pattern), making 
it 1,320 ends of blue, and leaving 2 of the 36 ends left over 
(36-8-2-24 = 2). To the 648 ends of green 2 more are added 
(these being the thirty-fifth and thirty-sixth ends of the pattern), 
making it 650 ends of green, and using up the rest of the 36 
ends left over (36 - 8 - 2 - 24 - 2 = 0) , giving a total of 440 ends of 
black, 1,320 ends of blue, 110 ends of red and 650 ends of green. 

36 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

Answer: The above warp requires 440 ends black 

1,320 ends blue 
110 ends red 
650 ends green 

Total number of ends in warp 2,520 
Example: Find the number of ends of each color required to 
dress a warp 22 X 3 X 66'', with the following color pattern : 
Black 2 4 2 8 

Slate 112 4 

Twist 111 3 

Red 1 1 

Total of 16 ends per pattern 
Solution: 22 X 3 = 66 ends per inch. 66 X 66 - 4,356 ends in 
warp. 

4,356 -^ 16= 272 patterns and 4 ends over. 
8 X 272 + 2 = 2, 1 78 ends of black, 
4X272+ 1 = 1,089 ends of slate, 
3 X 272 + 1 = 817 ends of twist, 
1X272 = 272 ends of red. 
Answer: The above warp requires 

2,178 ends of black 
1,089 ends of slate 
817 ends of twist 
272 ends of red 



Total number of ends in warp 4,356 

47. To find the number of yards of warp yarn required to 
dress a warp any given length, when the texture, width of warp 
in reed, and length of warp to be dressed, are given. 

Rule: Multiply the number of ends in the warp by the 
length it is to be dressed. 

Example: Find the number of yards of warp yarn required 
to dress a warp with a texture of 62 ends, 36 inches wide, 500 
yards long. 

Solution: 62x36 = 2,232 ends in warp. 2,232X500 = 
1,116,000 yards. Answer: It requires 1,116,000 yards of warp 
yarn to dress a warp 500 yards long, with a texture of 62 ends 
per inch, 36 inches wide. 

Example: Find the number of yards of warp yarn required 
in a warp 72'' wide, 48 ends per inch, which is to be dressed 450 
yards long. 

Solution: 48X72 = 3,456 ends in warp. 3,456X450 = 
1,555,200 yards. Answer: 1,555,200 yards of warp yarn are 
required to dress the above warp. 

37 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

48. To find the number of yards of yarn of each color (or 
each kind used), required to dress a warp a given length, when 
the number of ends in warp, its length, and the pattern, are given. 

Rule: Multiply the number of ends of each color (or kind of 
yarn) by the length of warp to be dressed. 

Example: Find the number of yards of yarn, of each color, 
required to dress a warp 104 yards long. Having the same 
texture, width in reed, and color pattern as in first example 
under Section 46. 



Solution: 


Black 440X104 = 
Blue 1,320X104 = 
Red 110X104 = 
Green 650X104 = 


45,760 vards 
137,280 ' " 
11,440 " 
67,600 " 


Answer: 


It requires 45,760 

137,280 

11,440 

67,600 


v^ards of black 
" blue 
" " red 
" green 



A total of 262,080 yards 
Example: Find the number of yards of yarn of each color 
required to dress a warp 62 yards long; having the same texture, 
width in reed, and color pattern as in second example under 
Section 46. 



ion: Black 


2,178X62=135,036 


yards 


Slate 


1,089X62= 67,518 


(< 


Twist 


817X62= 50,654 


" 


Red 


272X62= 16,864 


" 



Answer: It requires 135,036 yards of black 
67,518 " " slate 
50,654 " " twist 
16,864 " " red 



A total of 270,072 yards 

49. To find the weight of any warp in ounces or pounds, when 
the number of yards of warp yarn required, the count and 
material of the yarn are given. 

Rule: Divide the number of yards of warp yarn required 
by the number of yards of yarn per pound of the yarn in question. 

Note: If the weight is required in ounces, then the total 
number of yards of yarn required must be divided by the number 
of yards per ounce of the yarn in question. 

If different kinds of yarns are used in the same warp, and 
the weight of each is required, then the number of yards required 
of each kind of yarn must be divided by its respective number 

38 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

of yards per pound (or, if the answer is required in ounces, per 
ounce), and the different weights added together, thus obtaining 
the total weight of warp. 

Example: Find the weight in pounds of each kind of yarn 
required to dress a warp with 56 ends per inch, 61 inches wide, 
and 104 yards long; having the following color pattern, 2/30 's 
worsted being the count of all yarns used. 

11 I 19 

1 111 

i 9 

1 ! 1 



Black 


1 1 


1 


1 1 1 


Twist 


1 


2 


1 ! 


Slate 


1 


1 


1 


Red 






1 



4 times 4 times Total 40 ends per pattern 

Solution: 56 X 61 = 3,416 ends in the warp. 

3,416^40 = 85 patterns and 16 ends in warp. 
85 X 19 + 8 = 1 ,623 ends of black in warp. 
85x11 + 4= 939 ends of twist in warp. 
85 X 9 + 4= 769 ends of slate in warp. 
85 X 1 = 85 ends of red in warp. 



Total of 3,416 ends in warp. 

1,623 X 104 (length of warp to be dressed) 
= 168,792 yards of black. 
939 X 104= 97,656 yards of twist. 
769 X 104= 79,976 yards of slate. 
85 X 1 04 = 8,840 vards of red. 



Total of 355,264 yards of yarn in the warp. 

2/30's worsted = 1/15's; 560 X 15 = 8,400 yards. 
168,792 - 8,400 = 20.094 + pounds of black. 

97,656 ^ 8,400 = 1 1 .626 ~ pounds of twist. 

79,976 - 8,400 = 9.521 - pounds of slate. 
8,840 -^ 8,400 = 1 .052 + pounds of red. 



Total of 42.293 + pounds of yarn. 

Answer: For the above warp 20.094 pounds of 2/30's 
black worsted, 11.626 pounds of 2/30's twist, 9.521 pounds of 
2/30's slate and 1.052 pounds of 2/30's red worsted yarn is 
required. 

Note: To change the decimal fractions of pounds into 
ounces, the first remainder, after having found the complete 
number of pounds, must be divided by the number of yards per 
ounce, of the yarn in question. 

If in the foregoing example all yarns should have happened 

39 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

to be of different counts, then it can be carried out in the same 
manner until the weight of the required number of yards of each 
kind of yarn is found; in which case a different divisor must be 
used for every kind of yarn which has a different count. 

50. To find the count of warp yarn required to dress a warp 
of which the material, number of ends, length, and weight are 
given. 

Rule: Multiply the number of ends in the warp by its length, 
and divide this product by the standard number of the yarn 
(material) in question times the weight of the warp. 

Example: Find the count of warp yarn required to dress a 
warp of 2,800 ends of worsted, 200 yards long, weighing 50 
pounds. 

Solution: 2,800x200 = 560,000 yards of warp yarn re- 
quired. 560 (standard for worsted) X 50 = 28,000 vards of 1/1's 
worsted per 50 pounds. 560,000^ 28,000 = 20's worsted. 
Answer: A 1/20's or 2/40's worsted is required to dress the 
above warp in order to obtain the required number of ends, 
length and weight. 

51. To find the number of ends in warp, when the counts of 
yarn, length and weight of warp are given. 

Rule: Multiply the count by the standard number of the 
yarn in question and this product by the weight of the warp, then 
divide this latter product by the length of warp to be dressed. 

Example: Find the number of ends required to dress a 
warp with 2/40's cotton, 400 vards long, weighing 40 pounds. 

Solution: 2/40's = 1/20's cotton. 840x20X40 = 672,000 
yards of 2/40's cotton per 40 pounds. 672,000^400 = 1,680 
ends. Answer: 1,680 ends of 2/40's cotton are required to 
dress the above warp in order to obtain the required length and 
weight. 

52. To find the length of any warp, of which the count of 
the yarn used, number of ends, and its weight are given. 

Rule: Multiply the count by the standard number of the 
yarn in question and this product by the weight of the warp, then 
divide this latter product by the number of ends in the warp. 

Example: Find the length of a warp of 4 run wool, having 
2,400 ends in the warp and weighing 42 pounds. 

Solution: 1 ,600 X 4 = 6,400 yards of 4 run wool per pound 
6,400 X 42 = 268,800 vards in warp. 
268,800 - 2,400 = 112 yards long. 
Answer: The warp must be 112 yards long in order to 
obtain the required weight with the above count and number of 
ends in warp. 

40 



CHAPTER SEVEN. 
FILLING CALCULATIONS. 

53. The Filling. Under this term those threads are under- 
stood which run crosswise in the goods. As a whole they are 
termed the filling, but separate or single filling threads are 
termed picks. When talking of the number of filling threads per 
inch in a fabric, it is customary to say this fabric has 30 picks per 
inch, etc., meaning that 30 filling threads are lying side by side 
in one inch of the fabric. In this case, the same as in warps, the 
number of picks per inch in the goods is referred to as its texture; 
in cotton goods the term sley is used. 

To find the number of yards of filling yarn required in one 
yard of cloth, when the number of picks per inch and the number 
of inches in the width of warp in reed are given. 

Rule: Multiply the number of picks per inch by the number 
of inches in the width of the warp in reed. 

Example: Find the number of yards of filling yarn required to 
weave one yard of cloth 64 inches wide in reed, 53 picks per inch. 

Solution: 53X64 = 3,392 yards. Answer: 3,392 yards of 
filling yarn is required to weave one yard of cloth. 

Proof: 53 picks per inch X 64 inches wide = 3,392 inches of 
filling yarn per inch of cloth. 3,392x36 (number of inches per 
yard) = 122,112 inches of filling yarn is required per yard of cloth. 
122,112-^36 (number of inches per yard) =3,392 yards of filling 
per yard of cloth. 

A^ote: To find the number of yards of filling yarn required 
in any number of yards of cloth. Multiply the number of yards 
of filling yarn required in one yard of cloth by the number of 
yards of cloth required. 

54. To find the number of pounds of filling yarn required to 
weave any amount of cloth, when the picks per inch, width of 
warp in reed (expressed in inches), count and material of filling, 
and length of cloth to be woven, are given. 

Rule: Multiply the number of picks per inch by the width 
of warp in reed and this product by the length of cloth to be 
woven, then diA^de this latter product by the count of the yarn 
times its standard number. 

Example: Find the amount of filling (in pounds) required to 
weave 48 yards of cloth, with 4 run wool filling, 30 picks per inch, 
72 inches wide. 

41 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

Solution: 30X72 = 2,1(30X48=103,680 vards of filling 
required. 103,680-- (4 X l,600j = 16.2 pounds/ Answer: 16.2 
pounds of 4 run wool is required to weave 48 yards of cloth, 72 
inches wide, and 30 picks per inch. 

55. To find the amount of filling expressed in ounces, re- 
quired, per yard of cloth, when the number of picks per inch, 
width of warp in reed, and count and material of the yarn, are 
given. 

Rule: Multiply the number of picks per inch by the width 
of warp in reed and divide this product by the number of yards 
per ounce of the yarn in question. (Or, divide the product by 
the count times the standard number and multiply this quotient 
by 16, the number of ounces per pound.) 

Example: Find the weight of one yard of cloth, in ounces, 
which has 72 picks per inch, 68 inches wide, using 2/48's worsted 
filling. 

Solution: 72X68 = 4,896 vards of filling per vard of cloth. 
2/48's = 1/24's = 560 X 24 = 13,440 - 16 = 840 yards of 2/48's wor- 
sted per ounce. 4,896^840 = 5.83— ounces. Answer: 5.83 — 
ounces of 2/48's worsted filling is required to weave one yard of 
cloth. 

Xote: When more than one kind of filling is used, and it is 
desired to find the weight of each kind required in one yard, or 
any amount, of cloth, then the number of yards of filling per 
yard of cloth must first be found, after which, by proportion, the 
number of yards of each kind of filling yarn, required, is found; 
from which results the weights of the different yarns are found 
the same as in the above rule, i.e., by dividing the number of 
yards of yarn required by the number of yards per ounce, of the 
yarn in question. 

Example: Find the weight of each kind of filling required 
to weave (a) one yard (expressed in ounces), {h) to weave 48 
\"ards (expressed in pounds), of cloth, with 64 picks per inch, 
72 inches width of warp in reed. The filling is arranged : 

2/40's worsted, black 4 4 4 4 4 ^ 20 

2/40's worsted, blue 2 2 4 

2/40's worsted, brown 24 8 \ 32 

2/40's worsted, green 24 | 24 

Total of 80 picks per pattern 

Solution: 64X72 = 4,608 yards of filling per yard of cloth. 
4,608X20 (picks of black per pattern) ^80 (picks per pattern) = 
1,152 yards of black filling per yard of cloth. 4,608X4 (picks of 
blue per pattern) ^80 = 230.4 yards of blre filling per yard of 

42 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

cloth. 4,608X32 (picks of brown per pattern) ^80= 1,843.2 
yards of brown filling per yard of cloth. 4,608X24 (picks of 
green per pattern) ^80= 1,382.4 yards of green filling per yard 
of cloth. 

2/40's worsted = 40 ^ 2 = 1/20's worsted. 560 X 20 ^ 
16 = 700 yards of 2/40's worsted per ounce. 



1,152 

230.4 
1,843.2 
1,382.4 



700 = 1 .646- ounces of black per yard of cloth. 
700= .329+ ounces of blue per yard of cloth. 
700 = 2.633 + ouncesof brownper yard of cloth. 
700 = 1 .975- ounces of green per yard of cloth. 



Totals 4,608 yards 6.583 — ounces of filling per yard of cloth. 

Answer: (a). Black, 1.646 ounces. 

Blue, .329 " 

Brown, 2.633 " 

Green, 1.975 " 

1.646X48^ 16 = 4.938 pounds of black, per 48 yards of cloth. 

.329 X 48 ^ 16 = .987 pounds of blue, per 48 yards of cloth. 
2. 633x48-^ 16 = 7.899 pounds of brown , per 48 yards of cloth . 
1 .975 X 48 -- 16 = 5.925 pounds of green, per 48 yards of cloth. 

Total 19.749 pounds of filling per 48 yards of cloth. 

Answer (b): Black, 4.938 pounds. 

Blue, .987 
Brown, 7.899 
Green, 5.925 

Note 2: When all the yarns are of the same count and 
material, like in the example above, then the weight of one yard 
of cloth can be found directly, and the weights of the different 
colors required are found by proportion from that. Thus: Total 
weight of one yard of cloth (from above example), 6.583 ounces. 
Of black there'is required 6.583X20 ^80 =1.646 - ounces of blue, 
6.583 X 4 ^80 = .329 ounce of brown, 6.583x32^80 = 2.633 
ounces and of green 6.583x24^80= 1.975 ounces. 

56. To find the required number of picks per inch to weave a 
piece of cloth, when the count and material of the filling, width of 
warp in reed, length of cloth to be woven, and weight of filling to 
be used, are given. 

Rule: Multiply the count of the yarn by its standard 
number and this product by the weight of material to be used, 
then divide this quotient by the width of warp in reed times the 
length of cloth to be woven. 

Example: Find the number of picks per inch required to use 

43 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

40 pounds of 1/30's cotton filling in a piece of goods 32 inches in 
reed, 420 yards long. 

Solution: 30 X 840 X 40 = 1 ,008,000 yards of filling to be used. 
1 ,008,000 -^ (32 X 420) = 75 nioks per inch. A ns^ve- ' It requires 
75 picks per inch. 

57. To find the number of yards of cloth that can be woven, 
when the number of picks per inch, width of warp in reed, count 
and material of the yarn, and the weight of filling to be used, are 
given. 

Rule: Multiply the count by its standard number and this 
product by the weight of yarn to be used, then divide this pro- 
duct by the number of picks per inch times the width of warp in 
reed. 

Example: Find the' number of yards of cloth that can be 
woven with 40 pounds of 1/30's worsted, 72 picks per inch, 68 
inches wide. 

Solution: 30 X 560 X 40 = 672,000 vards of filling to be used. 
72 X 68 = 4,896 yards of filling required per yard of cloth. 672,000 
-7-4,896= 137. 25 -f- yards. Answer: 137.25 yards of cloth can be 
woven with 40 pounds of 1/30's worsted, of the above fabric. 

Note: No allowance for waste is made in any of these 
examples. 

58. To find the count of the filling, when the number of picks 
per inch, width of warp in reed, material, length of cloth to be 
woven, and weight of filling, are given. 

Rule: Multiply the number of picks per inch by the width of 
warp in reed and this product by the length of cloth to be woven, 
then divide this latter product by the standard number of the 
yarn (material) used times the total weight of filling. 

Example: Find the size (count) of yarn in the run wool 
system, to be used as filling to weave 100 yards of cloth 70 
inches in the reed, 48 picks per inch, the filling weighing 42 
pounds. 

Solution: 48 X 70 X 100 = 336,000 vards of filling to be used. 
1600X42 = 67,200 yards of 1 run wool per 42 pounds. 336,000 4- 
67,200 = 5 run wool. Answer: A 5 run woolen yarn must be 
used. 



44 



CHAPTER EIGHT. 

THE SELVAGE, TAKE-UP OF WARP DURING 

WEAVING, WASTE OF WARP AND FILLING 

DURING WEAVING. 

59. The Selvage is a series of threads running along on each 
side of the warp, and interweaving with the filling the same as the 
warp. It serves as a protector of the goods and, on this account, 
is generally made stronger than the rest of the goods. The 
threads are termed ends, the same as in the case of the warp; 
from two (2) to forty (40) and more ends may be used for the 
selvage on each side of the goods. The extreme outside ends are 
generally drawn two or more into one heddle ; at times all the 
selvage threads are drawn-in in this manner, two in every heddle. 

On woolens and worsteds, for men's wear, the selvage is from 
one-fourth to three-fourths, and sometimes to one inch wide, on 
each side of the goods; while in dress goods it is hardly ever wider 
than one-half inch. 

The selvage is figured the same as the warp, but separate 
from same. When finding the total number of ends in a warp, it 
is customary to give the width of warp proper (inside of selvage) , 
and use this width for the computation. The selvage is given 
outside of this width, either as to the number of ends (for selvage) 
used on each side or the width of the selvage (on each side) in the 
reed. For instance: The texture of the warp may be given as 
16X4X60'' inside of selvage, using 24 ends, for selvage, on each 
side; in this instance the selvage would be reeded the same as the 
warp; i.e., four ends per dent, unless otherwise stated, which 
would make it three-eighths of an inch on each side, widening the 
goods (in the reed), by three-fourths of an inch. Or the texture 
may be given as 16X4X64'' inside of selvage, allowing three- 
eighths of an inch for selvage, on each side of the goods. The 
texture can also be given as 16X4X64| overall, allowing three- 
eighths inches on each side of the goods for selvage. 

When calculating the filling, the width of warp in reed, 
including the selvage, must be used; as the filling interweaves as 
well with the selvage as with the warp proper, and every pick is 
required to be as long as the width of the warp proper plus the 
space taken up by the selvage on each side of the goods. 

In many instances a stronger as well as heavier yarn is used 
for the selvage than that used for the warp, as there is more 

45 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

strain on the selvage threads, due to the puUing of the filHng 
when the shuttle crosses over to the further side. It is also 
customary to have a fancy, or otherwise noticeable, end on the 
inside of the selvage; i.e., where the selvage ends and the warp 
proper commences. At times the selvage is dressed according 
to a color pattern, as in mills w^here goods are made for various 
commission houses a selvage of a different pattern is employed 
for each firm. In some mills they use a different pattern in the 
selvage for every quality of goods. 

" Listing " is another name for " Selvage." 

60. To find the length of fabric from loom, when the length 
of warp dressed (minus the allowance for waste), and the per- 
centage of take-up, are given. 

Rule: Multiply the given length by the percentage of 
take-up, divide this product by 100 and subtract this quotient 
from the given length of the warp. 

Note: It must be remembered that the warp dressed is the 
base, the percentage of take-up the rate per cent, and the woven 
goods the difference. 

Example: Find the number of yards of cloth which can be 
woven from a warp 62 yards long, and having a take-up of 8%. 

Solution: 62x8 = 496^100 = 4.96. 62-4.96 = 57.04 yards. 
Answer: 57.04 yards of cloth can be woven. 

61. Waste of warp and filling during weaving. When dress- 
ing a warp it is customary to allow one and one-half to two and 
one-half yards for waste; i.e., dress the warp for that number of 
yards longer than is required by the length of cloth to be woven 
plus the allowances for take-up; this extra length is used for 
tying the warp into the loom and the extra length necessary 
at the end of the warp, as a certain length must remain in the 
harness frames still attached to the warp-beam. This is the 
only waste of warp made after it has been beamed; there is a 
certain amount made during the dressing and also in the spooling 
of the yarn before it is ready for the dressing of the warp. This 
however is not of much consequence as the percentage of waste 
remains very small. 

Filling is wasted by the changing of the shuttles when 
renewing the supply of filling and by removing the filling from 
cloth (picking out) woven defective, which warrants the picking 
out. The amount of filling wasted during weaving depends 
entirely upon the size of the yarn used, as less coarse yarn can 
be wound on one bobbin than that of a finer count and naturally 
requires to be renewed oftener. Some goods are woven with 
yarn and weaves which cause considerable trouble during the 

46 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

weaving, thus making defective cloth which has to be picked out; 
while other goods will weave so well that no defective cloth will 
result in the entire length, thus avoiding all waste of filling 
caused by picking out. 

Different allowances are made for the waste of filling, and 
must be left entirely to judgment and experience as it may range 
from i% to 10% and over. In all further calculations in this 
book, waste of filling during weaving will not be considered. It 
is customary to add a suitable percentage to the amount of filling 
required in the goods, sufficient warranted by former experiences. 



47 



CHAPTER NINE. 

EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATING THE CALCULATIONS 

FOR FINDING THE COST OF MATERIALS, ETC., 

FOR VARIOUS CLASSES OF FABRICS. 

62. Blue Serge Suiting. Warp — 16 reed, 4 ends per dent, 
62 inches wide, of 2/36's worsted at $1.20 per pound. Filling — 
68 picks per inch of 1/14's worsted at 85 cents per pound. Sel- 
vage — 32 double ends of 2/28's worsted at 70 cents per pound. 
The fabric is to be 48 yards from loom allowing 8% for take-up 
and 2 yards for waste. 

Find the total weight of fabric from loom, cost of materials 
required, and cost of one yard of cloth finished, allowing 12 cents 
per yard for the weaving and general weaving-room expense and 
20 cents per yard for finishing and dyeing. 

Solution: Warp varn required. 16X4X62 = 3,968 ends in 
warp. 48X1004-(106-8)=52.174. length of warp woven. 
52.174+2 = 54.174 yards, length of warp to be dressed. 3,968 X 
54.174 = 214,962.432 yards of warp yarn required. 2/36's = 
36-v-2 = 18's worsted. ' 560X18=10,080 vards of 2/36's worsted 
per pound. 214,962.432^10,080 = 21.326- pounds of warp 
yarn required. 2 1.326X11.20 = $25. 59+ cost of warp yarn 
required. Filling, 63 (width including selvage) X 68X48 = 
205,632 yards of filling required. 1/14 = 560X14 = 7,840 yards 
of 1/14's worsted per pound. 205,632 -- 7,840 = 26.228+ pounds 
of filling required. 26.228X10.85 = $22.29+ cost of filling 
required. Selvage, 32x2x2 = 128 ends of selvage required. 
128X54.174 = 6,934.272 yards of selvage varn required. 2/28 = 
284-2 = 14's worsted. 560X14 = 7,840 yards of 2/28's worsted 
per pound. 6,934.272^7,840 = .884+ pounds of selvage yarn 
required. .884 X $0.70 = $0.62— cost of selvage varn required. 
3,968X52.174 (length of warp woven) =207,026.432 vards of 
warp yarn in 48 yards of cloth. 207,026.432 ^ 10,080 = 20.538 + 
pounds of warp varn. 128 X 52.174 (length of warp to be woven) 
= 6,678.272 yards. 6,678. 272 --7,840 = .852- pounds of selvage 
yarn required to weave 48 yards of cloth. 

$25.59 cost of warp yarn. $48.50^48 = $1.01 + cost of 

22.29 cost of filling yarn. materials for one yard of cloth 

.62 cost of selvage yarn. 



$48.50 cost of materials for 48 yards of cloth. 

48 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

.01 cost of materials. 

.12 cost of weaving, etc. 

.20 cost of finishing and dyeing. 



$1.33 cost of one yard of cloth finished. 

Answer: A . 47.618 pounds of material required. 

B. $48.50 cost of materials. 

C. $1.33 cost per yard of finished cloth. 

63. Cotton Sheeting. Warp — 26 reed, 3 ends per dent, 48 
inches in reed (inside of selvage), of 1/30's cotton at $0.26 per 
pound. The warp is dressed to weave 6 double-cuts of cloth, 
each cut 46 yards long; allowing 2 yards for waste and 5% for 
take-up during weaving. 

Selvage — One-quarter of an inch on each side, containing 
24 ends of 1/24's cotton at $0.22 per pound, allowing the same 
take-up and waste as for warp proper. 

Filling — 68 picks of 1/24's cotton per inch. The filling costs 
$0.20 per pound. 

Find the length of warp dressed; weight of fabric from loom; 
cost of materials required; cost of one yard of cloth from loom, 
and number of yards of cloth per pound. 

Solution: 26X3X48 = 3,744 ends in warp. 46X2X6 = 
552 yards of cloth required. 552 X 100^ (100-5) =581.052 + 
length of warp woven. 581.052 + 2 = 583.052 vards, length of 
warp dressed. 583.052x3,744 = 2,182,946.688 " yards of warp 
varn required. 1/30's = 840 X 30 = 25,200 yards of 1/30's cotton 
per pound. 2,182,946.688^25,200 = 86.625+ pounds of warp 
yarn required. 86.625 X .26 = $22.52 + , cost of warp. 

24X2 = 48 ends of selvage used. 583.052X48 = 27,986.496 
yards of selvage yarn required. 1/24's = 840X24 = 20, 160 vards 
of 1/24's cotton per pound. 27,986.496-20,160=1.388 + 
pounds of selvage yarn. 1.388 X .22 = $0.31 ~, cost of selvage 
yarns. 

48.5 (width of warp in reed including selvage) X 68 = 3,298 
yards of filling per vard of cloth. 3,298X522= 1,721,556 vards 
of filling required.^ 1/24's = 840x24 = 20, 160 vards of l724's 
cotton per pound. 1, 721, 556f20, 160 = 85. 3% -'. S5.395X.20 = 
$17.08 , cost of filling. 

581.052X3,744 = 2,175,458.688 vards of warp varn in 552 
yards of cloth. 2,175,458.688-25,200 = 86.328+ " pounds of 
warp varn in 552 vards of cloth. 

581.052X48 = 27,890.498 vards of selvage varn in 552 vards 
of cloth. 27,890.493-20,160=1.383+ pounds of selvage'yarn 
in clcth. 

49 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

Answer: A. 583.052 yards, or 583 yards, length of warp 
dressed. 

B. 86.328 pounds, weight of warp. 

1.383 " " " selvage. 

85.395 " of filling. 

173.106 pounds, weight of fabric from loom. 

C. $22.52 cost of warp yarn. 

.31 " " selvage yarns. 
17.08 " " filling. 

$39.91 cost of materials. 

D. 39.91 -552 = $0.0723-, or 7.25 cents cost of 

materials per yard. 

Note: To find the cost of one yard of cloth finished, the 
cost of weaving, bleaching and finishing must be added to this 
answer. 

E. 173. 106 X 16 = 2,769.696 ounces, total weight of 

cloth. 
2,769.696 ~ 552 = 5.018 ounces, weight per 

yard of cloth. 
16^5.018 = 3.189 yards, or about 3.2 yards 

of cloth per pound. 

Note: If the goods have been starched, then the amount of 
starch used must be added to the total weight of the goods and 
from that the number of yards of cloth per pound is found in the 
same manner as above. 

64. Cassimere Suiting. Warp. 8 reed, 4 ends per dent, 70 
inches wide (inside of selvage), of 2-run oxford mix, at 64 cents 
per pound. The warp is to be dressed 250 yards long, allowing 
from this length 2 yards for waste and from the remainder 10% 
for take-up. The goods lose 4% in length and 3% in weight 
during finishing. 

Selvage. Is made of the same material as the warp, using 
24 double-ends on each side, reeded 4 double-ends per dent. 
The same allowances for take-up, etc., are made as for the warp 
proper. 

Filling. 36 picks of 2t -run oxford mixed per inch, at 68 
cents per pound. 

A. Find the length of fabric from loom; B. Find the 
length of finished cloth; C. Find the total weight of fabric 
from loom, and the total weight of fabric finished; D. Find 
the weight per yard finished (in ounces); E. Find the cost of 

50 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

materials; F. Find the cost of one yard of cloth finished; 
allowing 28 cents per thousand ends for drawing-in, 6 cents per 
yard for weaving, 8 cents per yard for weaving and dressing- 
room expense, and 8 cents per yard for the finishing. 

Note: These costs are given with the understanding that 
they serve only for an illustration and are not claimed to be right 
according to present prices. 

Solution: 8X4x70 = 2,240 ends in warp. 2,240X250 = 
560,000 yards of warp yarn required to dress the warp. 2-run 
wool = 1 ,600 X 2 = 3,200 yards of 2-run wool per pound. 

560,000 ^ 3,200 = 175 pounds of warp yarn required. 175 X 
$0.64 = $112.00 cost of warp yarn. 

250-2 = 248 yards length of warp woven. 248-10% = 
223.2 yards length of cloth from loom. 223.2-4% = 214.272 
yards, length of goods finished. 

248X2,240 = 555,520 yards of warp yarn in 248 yards of 
warp. 555,520 -^ 3,200= 173.6 pounds of warp in cloth, after 
weaving. 173.6 — 3% = 168.392 pounds, weight of warp yarn 
after finishing. 

24X2X2 = 96 ends of selvage used. 96X250 = 24,000 
yards of yarn required for selvages. 96X248 = 23,808 yards of 
selvage in cloth. 24,000^3,200 = 7.5 pounds of selvage yarn 
required. 23,808^3,200 = 7.44 pounds of selvage yarn in the 
cloth. 7.44 — 3% = 7.217 - pounds of selvage yarn after finishing. 
7.5X10.64 = $4.80 cost of selvage yarn required. 

70 inches, width of warp in reed inside of selvage; selvage 
contains 24 double-ends on each side, 4 double-ends per dent = 
24x2-^4=12 dents required by selvage. Reed has 8 dents per 
inch; 12 dents = 12-^8= 1.5 inches width of seh^ages in reed. 70 + 
1.5 = 71.5 inches, width of warp in reed including selvage. 71.5 
X 36 = 2,574 yards of filling per yard of cloth. 

2,574X223.2 (length of fabric from loom) =574,516.8 yards 
of filling required to weave 223.2 yards of cloth. 21 -run 
wool = 1,600X21 = 3,600 vards of filling varn per pound. 
574,516.8^3,600=159.588 pounds, weight of'fiUing from loom. 
159,588 3% = 154.8+ pounds, weight of filling after goods 
are finished. 159.588X$0.68 = $108.52-, cost of filling required. 

Answer: A . 223.2 yards length of fabric from loom. 

B. 214.272 yards, or 214 yards, length of fabric 

finished. 

C. 173.6 pounds, weight of warp. 

7.5 pounds of selvage yarn. 
159.588 pounds of filling yarn. 



340.688 pounds, weight of fabric from loom. 
51 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

168.392 pounds, weight of warp yarn after 
finishing. 
7.44 pounds, weight of selvage after fin- 
ishing. 

154.8 pounds, weight of fiUing after finishing 



330.632 pounds, weight of finished fabric. 

D. 330.632 X 16 = 5,290. 112 ounces, weight of fin- 

ished fabric in ounces. 
5,290. 112 - 214.272 = 24.7 - ounces, 
weight per yard finished. 

E. $112.00 cost of warp yarn. 

4.80 cost of selvage yarn. 
108.52 cost of filling yarn. 



$225.92 cost of materials required. 

$225.92 cost of materials; 2,240 + 96 (ends in 
warp and selvage) = 2.336 X $0.28 — 
.65+ cost of drawing-in of warp. 223.2 
vards (length of fabric from loom) =- 
223.2 X $0.06 
13.39+ cost of weaving. 223.2 X $0.08 
17.86— dressing and weaving-room ex- 
pense 214.272 vards (length of 
fabric finished) = 214.272 X $0.08 
17.14+ cost of finishing 



$274.96 total cost of finished fabric. 
$274.96--214.272 = $1.283-, or $1.28, cost per 
yard of finished cloth. 
Note: At times it is necessary to make allowances for wind- 
ing, spooling and burling, besides the allowances made in the 
above example. Besides all of these allowances a certain per cent 
is added to the total cost of the goods, to allow for the capital 
invested for looms, buildings, etc. 

65. Fancy Worsted Dress Goods. Warp. The ground 
warp is reeded 24 reed, 2 ends per dent, 38 inches wide (inside of 
selvage), of 2/40's, worsted at $1.45 per pound. The figure warp 
is reeded along with the ground warp, regardless of the number 
of ends per dent, as long as there are two ground ends in every 
one; this latter warp is made of 2/24's worsted at $1.20 per 
pound. Weave 48 yards, allowing 12% take-up for ground 
warp and 4% for figure warp; and 3 yards for waste. Warp 
dressed : 

52 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 



Figure Warp 



Ground 

Blue 

Green 



1 
1 


1 
1 


1 
1 


36 


1 
1 


1 
1 


1 
1 


36 



96 
12 
12 



3 6 3 3 6 3 120 ends 

per pattern. 

Selvage. 16 double-ends of 2/30's white worsted, at $1.10 
per pound, on each side; 2 double-ends per dent. 12% take-up 
during weaving. 

Filling. 46 ground picks per inch; 1/20's worsted, at $0.90 
per pound. The fillings are arranged : 



Ground 



Figure Picks | |J.^^^ 



1 

1 


1 
1 




1 
1 


44 


1 
1 




1 i 
1 


1 
1 


44 



104 



2 4 2 2 4 2 120 picks 

per pattern. The figure filling is 1/15's worsted, at $0.78 per 
pound. 

A . Find the weight of each kind of material required. 

B. Find the cost of materials. 

C. Find the cost per yard of cloth. 

Note: In this example more stress will be placed on the 
uneven texture of warp and filling, than on the various expenses 
in the manufacturing of the goods. 

Solution: Warp. 24 X 2 X 38 = 1 ,824 ground ends in warp . 
1,824^96 (ground ends per pattern) = 19 patterns in warp. 12 
(number of blue figure ends per pattern) X 19 = 228 blue figure 
ends in warp. 12 (number of green figure ends per pattern) X 19 
= 228 green figure ends in warp. 1 ,824 ends of ground 

228 ends of blue 
228 ends of green 



Total number of ends 2,280 

48X100^(100" 12) = 54.545+ yards, length of ground warp 
woven. 54.545 + 3 = 57.545 yards, length of ground warp 
dressed. 48 X 100 -^ (100 — 4) =50 yards, length of figure-warp 
woven. 50 + 3 = 53 yards, length of figure warp dressed. 1,824 
X 57.545= 104,962.08 yards of ground-warp yarn required. 228 
X 53= 12,084 yards of blue figure warp yarn required. 228x53 
= 12,084 yards of green figure warp yarn required. 2/40's 
worsted = 40-2 = 20; 560x20=11,200 yards of 2/40's worsted 
per pound. 104,962.08-11,200 = 9.37+ pounds, weight of 
ground warp. 2/24's worsted = 24-2= 12; 560 X 12 = 6,720 yards 
of 2/24's worsted per pound. 12,084 --6,720= 1.798+ pounds 

53 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

of blue figure warp yarn required. 12,084^6,720=1.798 + 

pounds of green figure warp yarn required. 

9.37 pounds of ground warp 
1.798 pounds of blue figure 
1.798 pounds of green figure 



Total weight of warps 12.966 pounds. 

9.37 X 1.45 = $13,587— cost of ground warp 
1.798X1.20= 2.158— cost of blue figure warp 
1.798 X 1.20= 2.158— cost of green figure warp 



$17,903 total cost of warp yarns 

Selvage. 16X2x2 = 64 ends of selvage used. 64X57.545 
(length of ground warp dressed) = 3682.88 vards of selvage yarn 
required. 2/30's worsted = 30 --2 = 15; 560X15 = 8,400 yards of 
2/30's worsted per pound. 3682.88^-8,400 = .438+ pounds of 
selvage yarn required. .438 X 1.10 = $0.482 -, cost of selvage 
yarn. 

Filling. 46X36=1,656 ground picks per yard of cloth. 
1,656X48 = 79,488 ground picks in 48 yards of cloth. 79,488^ 
104 (number of ground picks per pattern) = 764 patterns and 32 
ground picks. 79,488 X38f'' (width of warp in reed including 
selvage), ^36 = 85,376 vards of 1/20's worsted filling used. 
l/20's = 560X20 = 11,200 yards per pound. 85,376-- 11,200 = 
7.62+ pounds, weight of ground filling. 764x8 = 6,112 + 4 (blue 
figure picks to the first 32 ground picks), =6,116 picks of blue 
figure filling. 764x8 = 6,112 + 4 (green figure picks to the first 
32 ground picks), =6,116 picks of green figure filling. 6,116X 
38|'' (width of warp in reed including selvage), ^36 = 6,569 
vards of each kind of figure filling is required. 1/15's worsted 
= 560X15 = 8,400 yards per pound. 6,569 --8,400 = .782 + 
pounds, weight of blue figure filling. .782+ weight of green 
figure filling. 

7.62 pounds weight of ground filling 
.782 pounds weight of blue figure filling 
.782 pounds weight of green figure filling 



9.184 pounds total weight of filling yarns 

7.62 X. 90 = $6,858 cost of ground filling 
.782 X .78= .61 - cost of blue figure filling 
.782 X .78= .61 - cost of green figure filling 

$8,078 total cost of filling yarns. 
54 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

Answers: A. 9.4 pounds of 2/40's worsted, 1.8 pounds of 
2/24's blue worsted, 1.8 pounds of 2/24's 
green worsted, .438 pounds of 2/30's 
worsted for selvage, 7.62 pound of 1/20 's 
worsted, .782 pounds of 1/15's blue 
worsted and .782 pounds of 1/15's green 
worsted. 

B. The total cost of materials is, warp $17.90 

selvage .482 

filling 8.078 



$26,460 

cost of all materials required. 

C. 26.46 ^48 = $0.55+ cost per yard of cloth. 

66. Electric Tape. Under this name a narrow fabric (tape) 
is placed on the market, used for insulating electric wires, etc. 
Some of this tape is woven on narrow fabric looms, and some is 
made by cutting up sheetings into narrow strips. The first 
method gives better results, as tape woven on narrow fabric 
looms will not unravel as that cut from broad goods. 

In this example electric tape woven on narrow fabric looms 
is to be calculated. 

f" width of tape finished, i'' in the reed, 54 ends of 
1/26's cotton, at 48 cents per pound, in the width of tape; 60 
picks per inch of 1/24's cotton, at 38 cents per pound. 

Of this tape 5,000 gross (144 yards per gross), is to be woven. 
Allowing 6% of take-up for warp during weaving, and one (1) 
yard of warp for every gross of tape, for waste. The weaving 
costs seven cents per gross and the weave-room expense amounts 
to eight cents per gross. The looms run 160 picks per minute, 40 
shuttles per loom; i.e., 40 warps are woven in every loom at the 
same time. Allow 1.5% of the filling for waste during spooling 
and weaving; the spooling costs 1.5 cents per pound. 

A . How many pounds of warp and filling yarn are required ? 

B. What is the cost of the yarns? (Not including the cost of 

spooling the filling.) 

C. Find the weight of one gross cf tape. 

D. Find the cost of one gross of tape. 

E. Find the time required to weave 5,000 gross of this tape; 

allowing 10% of the time the looms must run, at 160 
picks per minute without any stop, for stoppages. 60 
hours constitute one working week, and 10 hours one 
working day. 
Solution: Warp. 54 X 144 = 7,776 X 100- (100-6) =8,272.3 + 

55 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

yards of warp yarn per gross of tape. 8,273.4x5,000 = 
41,361,500 yards of warp yarn in 5,000 gross of tape. 

1/26's cotton = 840 X 26 - 21 ,840 yards per pound. 41 ,361 ,500 
^21,840 = 1,893.84+ pounds of warp yarn contained in 5,000 
gross of tape. 

5,000X54 = 270,000 yards of waste. 41,361,500 + 270,000 
= 41,631,500 yards of warp yarn required. 41,631,500^21,840 
= 1,906.2+ pounds of warp yarn required. 

1,906.2X10.48 = $914,976, cost of warp yarn required. 

Filling. 60 X. 875 = 52. 5 yards of filling per yard of tape. 
52.5X144X5,000 = 37,800,000 yards of filling contained in 
5,000 gross of tape. 

1/24's cotton = 840X24 = 20,160 yards per pound. 37,800,- 
000 ^ 20, 160 = 1 ,875 pounds of filling in the goods. 1 ,875 X 100 -- 
(100 — 1.5) = 1,903.55+ pounds of filling required, including the 
allowance for waste. 1,903.55X10.38 = $723.3490, or $723.35, 
cost of filling varn required. 

Cost of Manufacturing. 1,903.55 X .015 = $28.55325, or $28.55, 
cost of spooling filling. 

5,000 X .07 = $350.00, cost of weaving. 5,000 X .08 = $400.00, 
weave-room expenses. 

Time Required. 60x36 = 2,160 picks per vard of tape. 
2,160X144 = 311,040 picks per gross of tape. 31 f,040X 5,000 = 
1,555,200,000 picks in 5,000 gross of tape. 

160X60 = 9,600 picks from each shuttle per hour. 9,600 X 
40 = 384,000 picks from each loom per hour. 384,000x10 = 
3,840,000 picks per hour from 10 looms. 

1,555,200,000^3,840,000 = 405 hours 10 looms must run, 
without stopping, in order to produce 5,000 gross of tape. 

405 +10% = 405X1. 10 = 445.5 hours, including stoppages, is 
required to produce 5,000 gross of tape, or 445.5-^60 = 7 weeks, 2 
days and 5.5 hours. 

Answer: A. 1,906.2 pounds of warp yarn 
1,903.55 pounds of filling yarn 



Total 3,809.75 pounds of yarn required. 
B. $914.98 cost of warp yarn 
723.35 cost of fillingVarn 



Total $1638.33 cost of yarns. 

C. 1,893.84 pounds of warp yarn in 5,000 gross of 
tape 
1,875.00 pounds of filling yarn in 5,000 gross of 
tape 

Total 3,768.84 pounds of yarn in 5,000 gross of tape. 
56 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

3,768.84X16^5,000 = 12.06+ ounces, the 
weight per gross of tape. 

D. $1,638.33 cost of yarns 

28.55 cost of spooling filhng yarn 
350.00 cost of weaving 
400.00 weave-room expense 



Total $2,416.88 cost of 5,000 gross. 

2,416.88 -^5,000 = .4834, or 49i cents, cost 
per gross. 

E. It requires 7 weeks, 2 days, and 5.5 hours to 
weave 5,000 gross of this tape on 10 looms 
with 40 shuttles each. 

67. Kersey Overcoating. (Piece Dye). The warps are 
arranged two of face to one of back, and the filling three of face 
to one of back. The face warp — 3,200 ends of b\ run wool at 
$0.90 per pound. The back warp — 1,600 ends of 3? run wool 
at $0.76 per pound. Dressed, one beam, 64 yards long; W 
yards of this goes to waste, after which the warp takes up 12% 
during weaving and shrinks 8%, in length, during finishing. 

Selvage, f inches on each side, consisting of 32 ends of 2 
run wool, at $0.48 per pound. 

Filling. The warp is 80 inches in reed, inside of selvage; 72 
picks per inch. The face filling is 5^ run wool, at $0.86 per 
pound, and the back filling is U run wool at $0.45 per pound. 
The weaving costs $0.18 per yard, and $0.06 per yard for general 
weaving-room expenses. 

Finishing and Dyeing. The cost of finishing and dyeing is 
$0.30 per yard and other mill expense $0.10 per yard on finished 
goods. During the fulling 16 pounds of flocks are added to the 
goods. The flocks cost $0.10 per pound. 

A . Find the cost of yarns required. 

B. Find the cost of one yard of cloth finished. 

Solution: Warp. 3,200 ends of face = 3,200 X 64 = 204,800 
yards of 5h run wool required. 5i run wool = 1 ,600x5.5 = 
8,800 yards per pound. 204,800 ^ 8,800 = 23.27 + pounds of face 
warp required. 

1,600 ends of back warp = 1,600X64= 102,400 yards of 
31 run wool required. 3i = 1,600X3.5 = 5,600 yards of 3^ run 
wool per pound. 102,400^5,600 = 18.29— pounds of back warp 
required. 

23. 27 X. 90 = $20,943, cost of face warp. 18.29 X. 76 = 
$13.90, cost of back warp. 

Selvage. 32X2 = 64 ends of selvage; 64x64=4, 096 yard 

57 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

of selvage yarn required. 2 run wool = 1,600 = 3,200 yards of 2 
run wool per pound. 4,096^3,200= 1.28 pounds of selvage yarn 
required. 

1. 28 X. 48 = $0,614 + , cost of selvage yarn. 

Filling. 72 picks per inch; 3 picks of face to 1 pick of 
back = 72 ^4=18X3 = 54 picks of face and 18 picks of back, per 
inch. 54x81.5 (width including selvage) =4,401 yards of face 
filling per yard of cloth. 64 yards, length of warp dressed, less 
12% take-up = 56.32 yards of cloth to be woven. 4,401 X 56.32 = 
247,864.32 yards of 51 run filling required. 5i run = 
8,800 yards^per pound. 247,864.32-8,800 = 28.17+ pounds, 
weight of face filling. 18X81.5 = 1,467 yards of back filling per 
yard of cloth. 1,467x56.32 (length of goods woven) =82,621.44 
yards of back filling required. H run wool = 1,600 X 1.5 = 
2,400 yards per pound. 82,621.44-2,400 = 34.43- pounds of 
back filling required. 

28. 17 X. 86 = $24,226+ cost of face filling, 34.43 X. 45 = 
$45,494 - cost of back filling. 

Other Costs. 18 cents, cost of weaving per yard 

6 cents per yard, general weave-room expense 



24 cents per vard, cost of weaving, etc. 

56.32 X. 24 = $13.52 -cost of weaving, 16X .10 = $1.60 cost of 
flocks. 

56.32 = 8% (lose in length during finishing) =51.81 + yards, 
length of goods after finishing and dyeing. 

30 cents per yard, cost of dyeing and finishing 

10 cents per yard, other mill expense 

40 cents per yard, cost added to finished goods. 
51.81 X .40 = $20.72 cost of finishing. 
Answers: A. $20,943 cost of face warp 

13.90 cost of back warp 
.614 cost of selvage 

24.226 cost of face filling 

15.494 cost of back filling 

Total $75,177 cost of yarns, or $75.18. 

B. $75,177 cost of yarns 

13.52 cost of weaving 

1.60 cost of flocks 
20.72 cost of finishing 

Total $111.02 or $112.80. 

111. 02-51. 81 = $2. 14+ or $2.14, cost per 
yard finished. 

58 



CHAPTER TEN. 

THE DIAMETER OF THREADS, THE NUMBER OF 

THREADS THAT WILL WEAVE SIDE BY SIDE 

WITH ANY GIVEN WEAVE. DIFFERENT 

SIZES OF YARNS USED FOR WARP 

AND FILLING. 

68. The diameter of threads. To find the number of threads 
which will lie side by side per inch without any interlacing, and 
without any of the threads riding nor any spaces left between 
them. 

Riile: Find the number of yards per pound of the yarn in 
question, from which number extract the square root. From the 
square root of the number of yards per pound of the yarn in 
question, the following percentages are then subtracted : for silk 
yarns 4%, for cotton and linen 7%, for worsted 10%, and for 
wool 16%. 

Example: Find the number of threads which will lie side by 
side per inch without any interlacing (the diameter) of a 2/20 's 
worsted. 

Solution: 2/20 's worsted =l/10's - 560 X 10 =5,600 vards 
per pound. The square root of 5,600=74.83+. 74.83-10% 
(worsted) =67.35. Answer: 67.35 threads of 2/20's worsted 
will lie side by side per inch without any interlacing, or the 
diameter of 2/20's worsted = 67.35 of an inch. 

Example: Find the number of threads that will lie side by 
side per inch, without any interlacing, of a 2/40 's cotton. 

Sohition: 2/40's cotton = l/20's =840X20 =16,800 yards 
per pound. The square root of 16,800=129.61 + . 129.61-7%) 
= 120.54- . Answer: 120.54 threads of 2/40's cotton will lie side 
by side per inch, without any interlacing. 

69. To find the number of ends and picks per inch that will 
weave side by side with any interlacing (weave), when warp and 
filling are of the same counts. The filling interlacing with the 
warp, and vice versa, separates that system of threads so that a 
space equivalent to the diameter of the separating thread must 
be allowed for every point of interlacing. For instance : the 
plain weave weaves -r, repeating on two ends and picks and 

59 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

having two points of interlacing in one pattern. Now if the 
warp and filHng are both of the same diameter, two ends will take 
up the space of the dia.meter of two ends plus the space of the 
diameter of two picks ; in all, two ends will require the space of 
four. In this case, of the plain weave, an end comes up or goes 
down between every two picks, and a pick comes between every 
two ends, due to the alternate working of the ends and picks; 
therefore, if the counts of warp and filling are the same, every 
two ends require the space of four (allowing for the picks which 
pass between them), and every two picks require the space of 
four (also allowing for the ends which pass between them.)* 

In the case of a ^j twill, there are two points of interlacing 
for every four ends and picks, thus requiring for every four ends 
the space of six (when warp and filling are of the same size) , and 
for every four picks the space of six, etc. 

In such weaves, where the face and back of the goods are made 
up of the warp, the filling lying between the upper and lower 
layer of warp threads, like the rib weaves, hardly any space is 
taken up by the interlacing ; therefore nearh- as many threads 
may weave side by side as will go side by side without any inter- 
lacing. In warp-rib weaves a lower texture may be used for the 
filling while in filling-rib weaves the texture of the warp is smaller. 

To obtain the proper texture for satin weave the same method 
may be employed as that used in finding the right texture for 
twills, i.e., the points of interlacing must be allowed for. Every 
weave has at least two points of interlacing in one repeat (pat- 
tern), and any number, from that up, as there are changes, of 
the warp and filling, from the face to the back, and vice versa. 

To find the number of ends which will weave side by side with 
any given single cloth weave (excepting rib weaves), when the 
number of threads that will lie side by side without any inter- 
lacing is given, and the counts of both systems of threads are the 
same. 

Rule: Divide the number of threads that will lie side by 
side per inch without any interlacing, by the number of threads 
in one repeat of the weave plus the points of interlacing, then 
multiply this quotient by the number of threads in one repeat of 
the weave. 

Example: Find the number of threads of a 2/20's worsted 
that will weave side by side in one inch, when the plain weave is 
used for the interlacing. 

Solution: According to the example under No. 68, of this 
chapter, there are 67.35 threads per inch that will lie side by 
side without any interlacing. 

The plain weave repeats on two ends and two picks, and has 

*Upon examining Fig. 1. of Book 1, this will be better understood. 

60 



OF WOVEN FABRICS 

two points of interlacing for every repeat ; thus 2 + 2=4. 67.35 
--4 = 16.84X2=33.68 threads per inch. Answer: 33.68 or 
nearly 34 threads per inch of 2/20 's worsted will weave side by 
side when using a plain weave for the interlacing. 

The amount of twist in the yarn at times will influence this 
texture, as the more twist the harder the yarn, and the less 
twist the softer the yarn. More threads may be placed per inch 
of a hard yarn than of one softer, because the harder yarn is 
generally much stronger than when it has a smaller number of 
turns of twist per inch. 

Example: Find the number of threads of a 2/40's cotton 
yarn that will weave side by side when the t-t-t-t-t- 16-harness 
twill is used for the interlacing. 

Solution: From a previous example it has been found that 
120.54 threads of 2/40's cotton will lie side by side without any 
interlacing. There are ten points of interlacing in the above 
16-harness twill. 

120.54--(16+10)=4.64- Xl6=74.24. 

Ansivcr: 74.24 or practically 74 threads per inch will weave 
side by side of a 2/40's cotton using the ^t-4-t-t-t twill for the 
interlacing. 

70. When warp and filling are of different counts. 

Rule: First find the diameters of both systems of threads, 
then find the fraction of the inch taken up by the ends in one 
repeat of the weave (when the number of ends per inch is to be 
found, but when the number of picks per inch is to be found then 
the space taken up by the picks in one repeat of the weave is 
found), and to this add the fraction of an inch taken up by the 
fiUing passing between the ends in one repeat. Multiply the 
number of threads, which will lie side by side per inch without 
any interlacing, by the space required by the ends, in one repeat 
of the weave, and divide this product by the sum of the space 
required by the ends plus that required by the picks in one repeat 
of the weave. This quotient will be the number of ends which 
will weave side by side per inch. 

Example: Find the number of ends and picks per inch that 
can be put into a piece of cloth woven with a five-harness satin. 
The warp is made of 1/48 's worsted and the filling is a 3-run wool. 

Solution: 1/48's worsted =26,880 vards per pound. The 
square root of 26,880=163.95 + . 163'95 - 10% =147.55+ , or 
nearly 148 warp threads per inch will lie side by side without any 
interlacing, that is a diameter of i+s of an inch. 

3-run wool = 1 ,600 X 3 =4,800 yards per pound. The square 
root of 4,800=69.28+. 69.28 - 16% =58.19+ , or practically 58 

61 



DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION 

filling threads per inch will lie side by side without any inter- 
lacing, or the diameter is -h of an inch. 

A five -harness satin repeats on five ends and five picks, and 
every end and pick has two points of interlacing in one repeat. 

For warp: j'i-8X5=^ is^^ = is 11 + 1=^4 

of an inch taken up by five warp threads. 

1 /lo w 5 . 586 148X5X8584 -o o i , J • i_ 

148Xy^^s3^== 148X586 =<3.24+ ends per inch. 
For filling: ^x5 = ^ m^'^^^, is+m = ^, 
of an inch taken up by five picks. 

-o w ^ 856 58X5X8584 -n i -i , • i ■ r. 

^8 X^ -858^ = ^8X856" = ^0-1^ + P^^^S per lUCh. 

Answer: In the above goods 73 or 74 ends of 1/48's worsted 
and 50 picks of 3-run wool may be placed per inch. 
V -- Note: In some satins it would be advisable to place a few 
more ends or picks per inch than the rule calls for. For it must 
always be borne in mind that a piece of satin is to be smooth and 
not show the points of interlacing on the face of the goods. In 
the above example it is evident that the warp is to make up the 
face, therefore the texture of the warp may be increased by 
adding from four to ten ends per inch. This, however, can only 
be done when the warp yarn is strong enough to stand the 
chafing and extra strain put on the warp by a crowded texture. 

If the yarn used for filling has the opposite twist of that used 
for the warp, then the textures may also be increased over that 
obtained by following the above rules ; as yarns of opposite twist, 
for warp and filling, combine more readily. 



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